THE PHILOSOPHY 



OF 



SENTENTIAL LANGUAGE; 



OR 



LANGUAGE AN EXACT SCIENCE, 

ELUCIDATED BY 

RULES BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES OF MENTAL PHILOSOPHY, 

DESIGNED TO PRESENT 

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF COMMUNICATING KNOWLEDGE 
CLEARLY AND CORRECTLY IN WRITING AND SPEAKING. 

By D. H. CRUTTENDEN, A.M. 

AUTHOR OF THE SERIES OF SYSTEMATIC ARITHMETICS, ETC. 



" Above all God's creatures, man is distinguished by the ability to 
use language ; but, among men, those, who are the most skilled in i'-s 
use, possess the most enviable distinction." 



H 



NEW YORK: 

C. SHEPARD & CO., 397 BROADWAY. 

KIGGINS & KELLOGG, 125 WILLIAM ST. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, iu the year 1859, 
By DAVID H. CRUTTENDEN, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 
Southern District of New York. 



SAVAGE <fc MCCKEA, ST EREOTYPER5, 
13 Chambers Street. N. Y. 



PEEFACE. 



In answer to the question, " What are the Exact Sciences f y 
I was taught to say, " The Mathematics and such other Sci- 
ences, as may be mathematically demonstrated ;" and also, by 
way of illustration, to say, " Grammar is not one of the Exact 
Sciences, because it is so much the result of usage? In 
after years I asked myself the question, "What reason ex- 
ists for calling Mathematical Language, Exact Science, 
which is not, at the same time, a good and sufficient reason 
for calling all language, if properly presented, Exact Sci- 
ence" In attempting to answer these questions, the follow- 
ing Propositions and Queries were suggested. 

Proposition I. Quantities were created, and their relations 
established by the great Creator himself; hence, they exhibit 
that perfection and order, which are the grand characteristics 
of all his works ; and Mathematical language is exact, because 
it represents these quantities and their relations. 

Proposition II. The truth of a mathematical statement is 
proved by showing, that it correctly represents the quantities 
and their relations. This is shown by a reference to the 
quantities themselves and to their relations, instead of quoting 
what certain persons have written concerning them. 

Proposition III. Ordinary or letter language represents 
thoughts, feelings, desires, &c, and their relations, as mathe- 
matical language represents quantities and their relations. 

Query First. Would the Creator exhibit less perfection 

and order in the creation of the mental powers and their re- 

i lations, than in the creation of quantities and their relations ? 

Query Second. If Sentential Language be developed as 
a science, whose Propositions are proved by references to 
that, which it represents, as in Mathematical Language ; 
would it not follow (since both mind and matter are the work 



4 PREFACE. 

of the same Creator), that the science of Sentential Language 
would be an exact science in the same sense and for the same 
reasons that Mathematical science is now said to be " exact" ? 

Query Third. Is it not very strange, that so many au- 
thors, after having condemned the Theories of others, attempt 
to establish the correctness of their own, by quotations from 
those authors^ whose works they have already condemned? 

How well we have succeeded in developing Sentential, 01 
Thought Language as an Exact Science can be seen by con- 
sulting the work itself. How far, in developing a plan, which 
frees the study of language from dogmatism, and makes each 
successive step depend on some previous statement, or supply 
some need already shown to exist, can be known by a trial 
of the plan. If it be fairly tried, we think it will be found to 
furnish more valuable exercise for developing, disciplining, 
and strengthening the mental powers than can be found in 
the mathematics, or in any other science. 

In all times, and among all nations, the ability to observe, 
and to think, combined with the ability to communicate these 
observations and thoughts, has been the grand power which 
has moved and still moves mankind. But let no one mistake 
in regard to this. A knowledge of the Grammar of a lan- 
guage is not the possession of the power to use that language ; 
as is fully testified by the experience of thousands, who have 
spent years in the study of grammar and are still painfully 
conscious of an inability to use language correctly. Some- 
thing more than a mere knowledge of the text is needed ; an 
idea, a thought, a feeling, which we desire to communicate, 
must exist in the mind ; and its possessor must have a knowl- 
edge of its existence, nature, and relations, before it can be 
properly expressed. But in order to understand our mental 
operations, we must study, observe, and reflect in regard to 
them ; and this constitutes a portion, the larger portion too, of 
our knowledge of Mental Philosophy. Hence, before begin- 
ning to study language, as the exponent of knowledge, it is 
necessary to know what that knowledge itself is ; how gained, 
its sources and its relations. 



PREFACE. 5 

At this particular statement, we are often met by objec- 
tions, and a colloquy somewhat like the following ensues ; — 

Objection. What, teach Mental Philosophy before teach- 
ing grammar ? 

Answer. Yes, and for the same reason that we always re- 
quire the learner to have some idea of quantity before study- 
ing the mathematics ; on the principle that words have mean- 
ings, only when they refer to antecedent ideas. 

Obj. But can one learn any thing, more especially Mental 
Philosophy, without first understanding language ? 

Ans. A child feels [knows by experience] the sensations 
of hunger, of pain, &c, as well before it knows the name of 
the feeling as after. Indeed, without this antecedent idea, 
the name itself would have no meaning to the child. 

Obj. Very true, but Mental Science is so abstract in its 
very nature, that there seems to be an absolute necessity for 
the possession of a large amount of other kinds of knowledge 
before beginning the study of this. 

Ans. That is the generally received opinion ; but before 
becoming students, do not children become familiar with nearly 
all of the terms belonging to the senses and to their uses ; 
also, with the use of the terms belonging to the different men- 
tal operations? Do not children attach meanings to such 
terms, as dream, think, pleasant, fear, anger, truth, &c. 

Obj. Most certainly ; but Mental Philosophy is so difficult 
— so abstruse — so abstract. 

Ans. So it is, ascisually taught in the books ; but no art is 
more familiar, or more practical than this. It is, indeed, only 
our daily selves, and, if the attention be once properly drawn 
to it, can never be forgotten. Certain of the old philosophers 
maintained that the source and measure of all, each could 
know were in himself, hence, they drew the maxim, "Know 
thyself." Again, do you not observe, that in all works on 
language, constant reference is made to the operations of the 
mind. We find in the outset, grammar defined as " the Sci- 
ence, which teaches us to express our thoughts, feelings* and 
desires correctly."" "Words are signs of ideas," &c. Now, 



6 PREFACE. 

if language be simply the exponent of mind and its actions, 
why not make an effort to have the mind itself, better under- 
stood before using its terms in defining those belonging to Ian- 
guage, or in attempting to show how language is the ex- 
ponent of thought. 

The chief objections to the present mode of teaching the 
English Language are — 

First Too much time is spent in " parsing/' or analyzing 
expressions, which others have made, as to the grammatical 
properties of their words ; while too little time is given to 
oral and written exercises in composition. 

" Parsing" may be all that is needed in the study of a lan- 
guage, which we do not intend to use as the medium of 
thought ; but, in studying one's native language, the case is 
ikr different. In this, we need the ability to frame or con- 
struct expressions for ourselves. Hence, a much larger share 
of the time, devoted to its study, should be directed to the 
mastery of its composition. From overlooking this fact, it 
has come to pass that thousands, who can parse the most dif- 
ficult constructions readily and well, can not construct a half 
a dozen consecutive sentences without violating some rule of 
rhetoric, or of grammar. (See p. 319.) 

Second. As most of the Parts of Speech are taught by 
lists of the words, instead of their uses in sentences, the study 
of Grammar has degenerated to a mere bandying of words, 
whose meanings are very nearly or quite overlooked. By 
this course, the study of a language is rendered dry and un- 
interesting, while the student, ignorant of its beauties, goes 
forth to acquire in the walks of business, or of professional 
life, that practical knowledge of language and its uses, which 
he sought in the school without finding ; and hence, it is, that 
so many men of sense have condemned the study of gram- 
mar, as of little, or no practical utility. 

Books of Reference. Mental Science ; Watts, Abercrombie, Upham, 
Winslow, &c. Physiology ; Magendie, Lambert, &c. Logic ; Whately, 
Hedges, &c. RJietoric ; Blair, Kames. Crombie, &c. 



CONTENTS. 



BOOK FIRST— KNOWLEDGE. 



PAGE. 

Proposition I. Man, a spirit- 
ual and physical being 13 

§ 6. Intellectual and Moral Phi- 
losophy 14 

Comparison of body and 

Spirit 14 

7. Conscious and Acquired 

knowledge 15 

Prop. II. Origin of Acquired 

knowledge 16 

3. Primary knowledge Exter- 
nal and Internal 17 

Prop. III. Primary External 

knowledge 17 

2. The Senses 17 

Use of the Senses 17 

Organs of the Senses 18 

18. Development of the Senses. 22 

First Exercise 23 

Prop. IV. The seven mental op- 
erations, or actions 25 

Sensation, Attention, Per- 
ception, Memory, Imag- 
ination, Reason, Judg- 
ment 25 

11. Ideas or Notions — Concep- 

tion 29 

12. Abstraction 30 

13. Human progress dependant 

upon the imagination. . . .30 

16. Intuitive knowledge 32 

18. Axioms or First Truths, 
Mathematical, Moral and 
Metaphysical or Ethical. .33 
22. Reasoning from First Truth 34 
Rules to be observed in Rea- 
soning 35 

Second Exercise 38 

Prop. V. Rational knowledge. .40 



PAGB. 

Prop. VI. Secondary knowl- 
edge, or knowledge from 

Testimony 41 

4. Rule for testing Secondary 

knowledge 42 

7. Laws of Testimony 43 

Third Exercise 46 

Prop. VII. Thinking or Rea- 
soning 47 

2. Concrete or Subsensuous 

thinking 47 

3. Abstract or Supersensuous 

thinking 47 

Prop. VIII. Concrete and Ab- 
stract thinking — contin- 
ued 48 

Prop. IX. Statements, Propo- 
sitions, Comparison and 

Association 49 

19. Cause and Effect 55 

22. Rules in regard to the rela- 
tion of Cause and Effect. . 56 

Fourth Exercise 57 

Prop. X. Mental Growth 58 

4. Primary, Synthetic Course 

for development 59 

6. Rules for the Synthetic 

Course 60 

Prop. XI. Secondary or Ad- 
vanced Course 61 

Primary versus Analytic ... 62 
Prop. XII. Art and Science . . .63 

7. Names or Terms and their 

Definitions 63 

9. Real Definition 63 

10. Nominal or Literal Defini- 
tion 64 

First Rule of Definitions ... 64 
Second Rule of Definitions. 65 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Third Rule of Definitions. .66 
Fourth Rule of Definitions. 66 

18. Principles of a Science 67 

19. Generalization 67 

20. Basis of Classification 68 



PAGE. 

First and Second Rules for 

Classification 69 

29. Principles and Rules 70 

Fifth Exercise 71 

General Remarks 73 



BOOK SECOND.— LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Prop. I. Sen ential Language. .75 

Prop. II. Three Analyses of 
Senten . Language ; Log- 
ical, Rhetorical, Gram- 
matical 76 

First Exercise 77 

Prop. III. Logical Analysis 78 

Prop. IV. Principal or Essen- Prop. VI. Logic 
tial parts of a thought ... 79 ( guages 



Examples in Logical Analy- 
sis 81 ; 



Prop. V. Simple forms of 

thought 30 

First, Second, and Third" 

Simple Formulas 83 

7. Compound Thought 85 

9. Connected Comp. Thought. 85 
n Mixed Compound Thought. 85 
of all lan- 

.87 



Reasons for using the For- 
mulas 87 



BOOK THIED.— RHETOEIC OF LANGUAGE. 



Prop. I. Rhetorical Analysis of 

Sentential Language 89 

Prop. II. Sentences 90 

Prop. III. Formation of Sen- 
tences 90 

First, Second, and Third 
Simple Formulas 91 

4. Producer and Receiver 91. 

5. Act, or Second Part 92 

Prop. IV. Compound Sentences 

Connected and Mixed. . .93 

4. Connected Compound Sen- 

tences 94 

5. Mixed Comp. Sentences . . .95 
Mixed Sentences 96 

Prop. V. Independ't Sentences. 97 

3. Dependent Sentences 98 

Subjective Dependent Sen- 
tences 98 

Objective Dependent Sen- 
tences 99 

Prop. VI. Leading, or Primary 

& Sub-joined Sentences. 100 

6. Use of Sub-joined Sen- 

tences 101 

Prop. VII. Offices and mean- 
ings of words 103 

2. Single or Isolated words . . 104 



Prop. VIII. Uses or Offices of 
Words ; Subjects, Affirm- 
ers, Objects, Relators, 
Adjuncts, Personators, 
Connectives,, and Excla- 
mations 105 

Prop. IX. Cont'ed Sentences . 1 1 6 

Prop. X. Contracted Simple 

Sentences 117 

Prop. XL First Primary Con- 
tractions 119 

5. Second Primary Contrac- 
tions 120 

6 . Third Primary Contritions .121 

7. Fourth Primary Contrac- 
tions . % . . . , 122 

8. Fifth Primary Contractions 123 
1 1 . Secondary Contractions ... 1 24 

Prop. XII. Emphasis 126 

6. General or Leading Sub- 

„ J ec * s 127 

7. Simple or Direct Arrange- 
ment 128 

8. Places in Sentences 128 

Prop. XIII. Punctuation 129 

3. Period 13Q 

8. Colon o t i3i 

9. Semicolon 131 



CONTENTS. 



9 



PAGE. 

10. Comma 133 

12. Quotation 135 

13. Dash 136 

14. Parenthesis t 137 

15. Brackets../. 137 

16. Abbreviation Marks 138 

22. Ellipsis Marks 140 

23. Leaders 140 

24. Caret 140 

25. Reference Marks 142 

30. Accent 142 

35. Quantity 143 

39. Diaeresis 143 

40. Cedilla 143 

Prop. XIV. Classification of 

Words 144 

2. Syllabication 144 

11. Origin of Words 146 

Origin of the English Lan- 
guage 146 

14. Derivative Words 156 

19. Roots changed for Eu- 
phony 157 

Saxon Prefixes and Suf- 
fixes 158 

Saxon Primitives and De- 
rivatives 159 

Latin Prefixes 160 

Latin Suffixes 163 

Latin Roots 165 

Greek Prefixes 166 



PA.GE. 

Greek Roots 167 

Latin and Greek Numerals 1 68 
Prop. XV. Literal and Figura- 
tive Language 169 

5. Figures 171 

Use of Figures 173 

7. Tropes or Figure of Words 175 

8. Figures of Thought 175 

Prop. XVI. Figures of Com- 
parison, Simile, Meta- 
phor, Antithesis, Inter- 
rogation, Irony, Allusion, 
and Allegory 176 

Prop. XVII. Figures of Asso- 
ciation, Enumeration, 
Climax, Metonymy, Syn- 
ecdoche, Imitation, Omis- 
sion, Repetition, and So- 
rites 183 

Prop. XVIII. Figures of Ima- 
gination, Exclamation, 
Vision, Personification, 
Apostrophe, Hyperbole. 183 

Prop. XIX. General Rules for 

Figures .188 

Exercise 191 

Prop. XX. Language, Natural 

and Artificial 192 

Classification of Letters . .195 
Syllabication, Verbation . . 1 97 



BOOK FOURTH.— GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



Prop. I. Grammatical Analy- . 
sis 199 

2. The Eight Parts of Speech 199 
Parsing by Rote 200 

Prop. II. The Noun 201 

3. Proper Noun 202 

5. Common Noun 203 

10. Adjective Noun 204 

11. Verbal, Sentential, and Ad- 

junctive 205 

15. Attributes of Nouns 206 

Gender by Different Words 207 
Gender by Prefixes and Suf- 
fixes 208 

19. Person of Nouns 209 

21 Number of Nouns 210 

Irregular Nouns 212 

25. Case of Nouns 215 



Special Principles, or Rules 

for Cases 217 

29. Declension of Nouns 219 

General Formula for Ana- 
lyzing Nouns 220 

Prop. III. Prepositions, or Re- 
lators 222 

Prop. IV. Pronouns 226 

Compound Pronouns 230 

Intensive and Reflexh a 

Pronouns 231 

Prop. V. Adjectives 232 

Verbal, Simple, and Com- 
pound 333 

8. Proper, 9. Common 234 

12. Descriptive 23 

14. Numeral 236 

20. Degrees of Comparison. . .238 



10 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Regular and Irregular Com- 
parison 240 

26. Designating Adjectives . . .241 

Definite ......244 

Demonstrative. .245 

Relative 246 

Adjectives showing Num- 
ber 250 

Adjectives Parsed as Nouns 251 
31 . Formula for Analyzing Ad- 
jectives . . 252 

Prof. VI. Verbs 253 

4. Transitives, Voice 253 

5. Active, 6. Passive 253 

Intransitives 254 

Attributes of Verbs 255 

The Tenses .256 

Primary Tenses, or Prin- 
cipal Parts .258 

List of Irregular Verbs . . . 259 

27. Person and Number 264 

Subjects Nominative and 

Objective 264 

28. Forms to Show Person and 

Number 265 

29. Second and Third Persons , 266 

31 . Mood, or Mode 267 

35. Infinitive Mood, or Mode. .268 

37. The Infinitive Mood as a 

Noun 270 

38. Participial Mood, or Parti- 

ciple 272 

Participial Mode as a Noun 276 



FIGS 

Participial Mode as an Ad- 
jective . ..277 

43. Indicative Mood, or Mode. 277 
51. Imperative Mood, or Mode 283 
54. Potential Mood, or Mode. .284 
60. Subjunctive Mood, or Mode 289 

74. Conjugation of the Verb, 

To see 296 

75. Synopsis of To teach 297 

76. Negative Conjugation 298 

Verb in Contracted Sen- 
tences 299 

79. General Formula for Ana- 
lyzing Verbs 301 

Prof. VII. Adverbs 302 

Classification of Adverbs . . 303 
Adverbs of Mode, Time . .304 
Adverbs of Place, Degree. 305 
Adverbs Intensified, Nega- 
tions 306 

Prof. VIII. Conjunctions.... 307 
Adverbial Conjunctions. . .308 
Correlative, Interpositive, 

Post 309 

Prof. IX. Exclamations 310 

Prof. X. Classification by Use 311 
Prof. XI. Secondary Clause. .312 

Prof. XII. Phrases * 313 

Prof. XIII. Grammatical Fig- 
ures 314 

3. Figures of Etymology 315 

Figures of Syntax 315 

Prof. XIV. Capital Letters . .316 



BOOK FIFTH.— COMPOSITION. 



Prof. I. Composition 319 

2. Qualifications for Compo- 

sing 320 

3. Genius 321 

4. Taste 321 

6. Standard of Taste 322 

Causes of Sublime Emo- 
tions 323 

11. Sublimity in Writing... . . .324 

Emotions of the Beautiful. 325 
13. Beauty in Composition . . .328 
Melody, Harmony, Wit, 

Humor 329 

Pathos 330 

Prof. II. Idioms 331 

2. Dialect 331 



4. Style 332 

Grecian and Modern Style . 335 
Prof. III. Perspicuity, Orna- 
ment 336 

4. Purity 337 

5. Propriety 338 

7. Precision 339 

Synonyms 340 

10. Clearness 343 

11. Strength 344 

12. Euphony 345 

14. Unity 347 

15. Ornament 348 

Prof. IV. Formation of a good 

Style 349 



CONTENTS. 



11 



6. 



8, 



PAGE. 

Prop. V. Prose and Verse 

Composition 352 

Rhyme 352 

Blank Verse 353 

Versification 353 

Measures, Primary and 
Secondary 354 

17. Epic Poetry 357 

18. Pastoral 358 

19. Lvric 358 

20. The Epigram 360 

21. The Elegy 360 

Prop. VI. Letter Writing 361 

3. Kind of Letters 362 

Date 363 

Address, Signature 364 

Postcripts 365 

Folding 365 

Direction 365 



365 

Examples of Notes and Let- 
ters 365 

5. Historical Writings 367 

5. Philosophical 368 

8. Fictitious 388 

10. Dramatic 369 

14. Oratorical 370 

Rules for Introductions. . .371 

Rules for Reasoning 373 

Rules for Appeals to Pas- 
sions 374 

Rules for a Conclusion . . .375 
Prop. VII. Reading or Deliv- 
ery 376 

2. The Reading Apparatus . .376 

3. The Management of the 

Voice 377 

6. Gesture 379 



EXTRACTS FOR EXERCISE. 

Genius and Labor. — R. Bonner page 381 

My Mother's Grave. — W. Irving 382 

Scene in the Roman Senate. — G. Croly 384 

Trouble.— H. W. Beecher 385 

Jackey Jessamy. — Anonymous 386 

Sprites at the Windmill 387 

" It Snows."— Mrs. S. J. Hale 388 

On Style.— J. K. Paulding .390 

Thanksgiving. — J. T. Buckingham 391 

Biblical Extract 392 

Bunker Hill. — Louis Kossuth 393 

Sweet Rose. — Isaah Walton 394 

Aunt Kindly.— Theodore Parker 395 

Signing the Pledge.— J". Abbott 396 

Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. — Shakspeare 398 

Immortality of the Soul. — Addison 400 

Byron.— Robert Pollok 401 

Marmion.— Walter Scott 402 

June Morning. — Anonymous 402 

Poetical Extracts 403 

Scene in Eden. — John Milton » . . . . 404 

God. — Derzhavin 406 



BOOK FIRST, 
KNOWLEDGE. 



PROPOSITION FIRST. 

1 . Man is a compound being, having both a Spirit- 
ual or Immortal^ and a Physical or Mortal Nature. 

2. The Spiritual being, or Spirit , is usually meant 
when we say, i, thou, he, We, you, they, or use the 
name of a person. 

3. The Physical being, or the Body, is usually men- 
tioned as belonging to the Spirit. 

Thus, we say, my body ; or a part of my body, as, my arm, 
my head, &c. ; because the parts belong to the body, and 
the body is our habitation. When we leave it, the Body dies. 
We do not die. 

4. As Spiritual beings, we employ ourselves either, 
in gaining knowledge, learning; or in using that, 
which we have already gained, practising. That part 
of this knowledge pertaining to things, by which we are 
surrounded, and to our own actions in gaining knowl- 
edge, is called Material or Temporal Knowledge ; that 
part, which pertains to character as good or evil, is 
called Spiritual Knowledge. 

5. We call our Spiritual beings or spirits, when 
engaged with Temporal Knowledge, Intellects or. 
Minds; when engaged with the Spiritual, we call 
them Souls or Spirits. 



14 



INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY. [Book I, 



The same person is called by different names, when con- 
sidered in different relations. A man, in relation to his pa- 
rents, is a Son ; in relation to his wife, is a Husband; to his 
children, is a Father, &c. 

" She died, having been, at the same time, the daughter, 
the wife, and the mother of a king." 

So the spirit is, at the same time, the mind, the intellect, 
the soul, I, You, the writer, and the reader. 

6. The science of the Intellect, or Mind, is called 
Intellectual or Mental Philosophy; and that of 
the Soul, or Spirit, is called Moral or Social Phi- 
losophy. 



A Comparison of the Body and the Spirit 

" And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, 
and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ; and man became 
a living soul." 



a. The Body is intended for 
growth or development, and for 
use or employment. 

b. The elements, by which the 
body grows and endures labor, are 
furnished by nutriment. 

+ c. Those parts of our nutri- 
ment, which furnish growth and 
strength to our bodies, become and 
are real and essential parts of our 
bodies. 

d. In order that our food may 
increase and sustain our bodies, it 
must be digested and directed to 
its proper members by the action 
of our own bodily organs, not by 
another's. 

e. Our bodies are that nutri- 
ment, which we ourselves have 
taken; except those bodies, with 
which, as the germs of after-devel- 
opment, we were bora. 



a. The Spirit is intended for 
growth or development, and for 
use or employment. 

b. The elements, by which the 
spirit grows and endures labor, are 
furnished by knowledge. 

c. Those parts of our knowl- 
edge, which furnish growth and 
strength to our spirits, become and 
are real and essential parts of our- 
selves. 

d. In order that our knowledge 
may develop and sustain us, it 
must be digested and directed to 
its proper offices by the action 
of our own spirits, not by an- 
other's. 

e. We are that knowledge, 
which we ourselves have learned ; 
except that undying principle, with 
which, as the germ of after-devel- 
opment, we were created. 



Prop. 1.] CONSCIOUS AND ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE. 15 

7. The Knowledge, which we possess as a germ of 
after-development, is called Conscious Knowledge, It 
includes what we know of beings or existences without 
study, or without thinking or reflecting upon it. It is 

" The soul, that rises with us, our life's star." 

8. Conscious Knowledge has several items or parts. 
First. The knowledge of Our Own Existence. 
Second. The knowledge of the Existence of all 

around us. 

Third. Of the Existence of our Bodily Feelings; 
as hunger, thirst, &c. 

Fourth. Of the Existence of our Mental Opera- 
tions , Emotions , and Passions; as thinking and choos- 
ing, of pleasure and pain, of the grand, the terrible, 
the ludicrous, <fec. 

Fifth. Of the Existence of our Moral and Social 
Affections and Emotions ; as of love to our Creator and 
to our fellow-men, fear, hatred, humility, anger, re- 
' venge, &c. 

Sixth. Of the Existence of our Religious Experi- 
ences ; as remorse, repentance, faith, hope, peace, &c. 

Conscious Knowledge is simply this ; We know as a Fact 
that we and the objects around us do exist. It has nothing 
to do with how, or why, we or they do exist. I know that a 
tree exists as a fact, because I perceive it. The certainty 
of my knowledge of its existence does not depend in the least 
upon my knowing how, or why, the tree exists. 

9. The Knowledge, which we afterward acquire, or 
gain in addition to our Conscious Knowledge, is called 
Acquired Knowledge. 

Our knowledge of the earth's existence is Conscious 
Knowledge ; what we have learned of the earth more than 
its existence is Acquired Knowledge. Both constitute our 
knowledge of Geography and Geology. 



16 ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE — ITS ORIGIN. [Book I. 

In acquiring knowledge, we often use the terms understand 
and know, as if both had but one meaning. The difference 
between them is this. When another explains or exhibits 
anything to us, or when we first examine it for ourselves, and 
see the fitness and propriety of its parts or principles, we un- 
derstand it. In order to know it, we must exercis.e ourselves 
in examining and thinking, until we can reproduce it for our- 
selves or present it properly to others. This is the proof of 
knowing. 

Understanding is the preparatory step to knowing. We 
can understand without knowing, we can not know without 
understanding. "They are all plain to him, that under- 
standeth 9 and right to them that find knowledge/ 7 (Proverbs 
viii. 9.) 

10. Our Acquired knowledge may be considered or 
classified in Two ways ; First, according to its origin 
or source, and Second, according to the mode of ar- 
ranging or using it. 

We can illustrate this classification by a person's property, 
which, in its acquisition, may be the result of his own individ- 
ual efforts, or be inherited from the acquisitions made by 
others ; while it may be used either as active business capital, 
or be lying passively on interest. 



PROPOSITION SECOND. 

1. According to its origin or source, Acquired 
knowledge is Primary or Personal, and Secondary or 
Derivative. 

2. Primary or Personal Knowledge is that which 
is first learned ; or that which we gain or learn by 
ourselves. Its basis is our Conscious Knowledge. 

Thus, our Knowledge of the pain, caused by a burn, a 
blow, or a wound, is a Primary or Personal Knowledge of 



Prop. 3.] PRIMARY EXTERNAL KNOWLEDGE. 17 

that pain. So is that Knowledge, which is gained by seeing, 
as in travelling ; by hearing, as in music ; or by mental work, 
as in the invention of new machines. 

3. Our Primary or Personal Knowledge is of two 
kinds ; a Knowledge of External Things or External 
Knowledge, and a Knowledge of Internal Things or 
Internal Knowledge. 

By a knowledge of external things, we mean not only a 
knowledge of those objects, by which we are surrounded, 
but also concerning our own bodies. Ourselves, as here used, 
means the immortal part, as distinguished from the mortal or 
dying part. 



PROPOSITION THIRD. 

1. Our Knowledge of External Things or Exter- 
nal Knowledge is learned by the aid of the Senses, 
arid hence, it is sometimes called Sensuous Knowledge. 

2. Those Mental operations or actions, by which 
we learn the properties of external things, are called 
the Senses. 

There has been much discussion, as to whether the Senses are dif- 
ferent and distinct parts of the mind, or the mind itself acting in differ- 
ent capacities. Either view will answer our present purpose. 

3. It is generally supposed, that we learn six dif- 
ferent properties of external things, and hence, we 
speak of Six Senses, through each of which we learn 
some one of these properties. 

First. By the Sense of Sight, we discover light or 
color. 

Second. By the Sense of Heaking, we discover 
sounds. 



18 SENSES — ORGAN OF THE SENSE OF SIGHT. [Book I. 

Third. By the Sense of Smell, we discover odors. 

Fourth. By the Sense of Taste, we discover flavors. 

Fifth. By the Sense of Feeling or Touch, we dis- 
cover temperature, surface, forms. 

Sixth. By the Muscular Sense, we discover weight 
and force. 

Some name only Five Senses, omitting the Muscular Sense, but Six 
are more generally recognised. Professor Winslow names Nine. See 
"Senses" in "Lambert's Physiology." 

4. Each Sense has its peculiar Bodily Organ, 
through which it acts, and through which it must be 
developed, if developed at all. The impressions, 
which each Sense receives through its Organ, are 
called Sensations. 

5. The Organ of the Sense of Sight is the Eye. 
The Sensation is called Seeing. 

For the development of this Sense, we have all the visible 
objects of Nature ; also Drawing, Reading, Writing, Paint- 
ing, Furniture, Dress, Sculpture, Architecture, &c. 

6. The Science and Art of Seeing are called Optics. 
In Optics we learn the following facts ; — 

First. That White light, or such as comes from the Sun, 
is of three kinds, Bed, Yellow, and. Blue. 

Second. That light always moves in straight lines. 

Third. That when light falls on surfaces, it is either 2?e- 
fleeted or Absorbed, or in part Reflected and in part Ab- 
sorbed. 

If all the light be reflected, the surface is called White. 

If all be absorbed, the surface is called Black. 

If a part be reflected and a part absorbed, the surface is 
said to have the reflected color. 

Thus, if the red be reflected, the yellow and blue being 
absorbed, the surface is called Bed. 

If the yellow be reflected, the blue and red being absorbed, 
the surface is Yellow. 



Pkop. 3.] ORGAN OF THE SENSE OF HEARING. 19 

If the red and yelloio be reflected, the blue being absorbed, 
the surface is Orange, a color formed by compounding red 
and yellow. 

7. The Organ of the Sense of Hearing is the Ear. 
The Sensation is called Hearing. 

For the development of this Sense, we have all the Sounds 
of the human voice ; of business, of musical instruments ; of 
birds, beasts, insects ; of forests, waters, &c. 

8. The science and art of hearing is called Acous- 
tics. 

In Acoustics, sounds have three distinctions ; 
First Pitch, which considers sounds as high or low. 
Second. Rhythm, which considers sounds as long or short. 
Third. Force or Dynamics, which considers sounds as 
soft or loud. 

The principal and almost the only difficulty, found in teaching 
Reading and Singing, is in Training the hearing to detect the distinc- 
tions of the sounds to be produced, since the learner soon imitates the 
most of those sounds, which the hearing properly detects. 

An exceedingly erroneous opinion has been entertained by many, 
although it has been disproved in numberless instances, that " Somo 
have an ear for music and others have no ear for music." 

Take the above erroneous opinion in connection with the 
following well-established facts. 

a. A child never uses its voice $n those dead, nor in those 
horridly screechy monotones, which are heard so frequently 
in the school-room, unless those tones have been taught to it 
and made habitual by long-continued use. 

b. Those using the tones above mentioned, and who are 
generally said to lack the " musical ear," were taught to do 
so, either in the schools, or by the example of those by whom 
they were surrounded in earlier years. 

c. That children, whose Sense of Hearing or musical tal- 
ent has been cultivated, uniformly have an " ear for music." 

d. That, of late years, very many adults, who had been 
declared to be of that unfortunate class " having no ear for 



20 ORGAN OF TASTE AND SMELLING. [Book I. 

music/' have been found to possess really remarkable gifts 
in this respect. 

It is utterly impossible to estimate the amount of evil 
which this one erroneous opinion has exerted, not only on in- 
dividuals but on the entire race, in repressing all attempts 
for development on the part of those by whom it was most 
needed. 

The truth of the whole matter is probably this ; "All, who 
can hear and speak, are born with " musical ears' 9 and voices 
too ; and the failure to use these gifts is owing to the lack 
of development ; while the incorrect use of them is due to 
an improper development. To attribute the failure to a 
deficiency in gifts is as much at variance with the truth it- 
self, as to attribute to a lack of the natural gift, the want of 
vigor in the arm of a Hindoo devotee, who has persisted in 
holding that arm in one position until the power of moving it 
has been lost. 

®. The Organ of the Sense of Taste is in the 
Mouth. 

To develop this Sense, we have the Flavors of fruits, meats, 
drinks, grains, vegetables, spices, &c. 

10. There is no generally developed Science of 
Tasting, as there is of Seeing and Hearing. The only 
approach to it being found in the rules and recipes for 
confectioneries, cooking, making drinks, &c. 

Viewed in its relations to health, and the consequent Phys- 
ical development of the human race, it is well worthy of be- 
ing reduced to a Science and taught as such. 

In regard to Flavors, bodies are agreeable or disagreeable; 
sweet or saccharine ; sour or acid ; flat, insipid, or alkaline ; 
and without flavor or neutral. 

1 1 . The Organ of the Sense of Smelling is in the 
Nose. 

To develop this Sense, we have all the varied Odors of 
flowers, plants, gums, &c. 



Prop. 3.] ORGAN OF FEELING AND MUSCULAR SENSE. 21 

12. The only approach to a Science of Smelling is 
in the Rules for making Perfumery. Its relations to 
health, in regard to pure air or ventilation, entitle it to 
a more thoroughly scientific consideration. 

In regard to Odors, substances are pleasant or unpleasant, 
agreeable or disagreeable, exciting or pungent, stinking or 
nauseating, and odorless. 

13. The Organ of the Sense of Feeling is in the 
Skin ; and the Organ of the Sense of Touch is in the 
tips of the fingers. 

For the development of this Sense, we have distances, the 
different kinds of surface, and the forms of bodies. 

Although great use is made of this Sense, both in ordinary 
life and in certain of the arts and professions, yet it has no 
developed Science. 

In this Sense, distances are considered as length, breadth, 
width, thickness, and height ; surfaces as smooth or rough ; 
even or uneven ; plane, broken, or curved ; vertical, inclined, 
or horizontal ; angular, circular, elliptical, or oval ; and per- 
pendicular or parallel. 

14. The Organ of the Muscular Sense is in the 

Muscles. 

To develop this Sense, we have weight, resistance, exer- 
cise, rest, food, clothing, cleanliness, &c. 

15. The Science of the Muscular Sense is found in 
Physiology and in the Mathematics. 

While the latter is studied, or rather while a superabun- 
dance of time is wasted on the latter, the former is, as a gen- 
eral thing, totally neglected. What can be of greater prac- 
tical importance to every human being, than a knowledge of 
himself? Yet the Sciences, which teach us what we are, are 
the most neglected, hence, their laws are the least known and, 
of course, the most violated. Persons, who would blush to 



22 DEVELOPMENT OF THE SENSES. [Book I. 

fail in spelling a useless word or in adding an abstract exam- 
ple, think it no reproach both in words and in deeds to ex- 
hibit the grossest ignorance of themselves and all the laws of 
their being. 

16. The more our Senses are used the more easily 
and correctly do they enable us to gain a knowledge 
of external objects. Hence the necessity of using and 
thus developing them. 

For this purpose the Natural Sciences are peculiarly fit- 
ted, and hence should be presented early in the student's 
course of studies. 

17. The Senses properly developed are the means, 
by which we enjoy whatever is beautiful in nature or 
in art. 

The enjoyment of one beautiful object of sight enables us 
to enjoy another still more, and also leads us to study what 
is pleasing in nature, in art, and in ourselves ; to improve 
the natural features of a landscape, the style of architecture, 
the motions and dress of individuals, and beautiful forms. 
The enjoyment of music leads us to study pleasant sounds, 
as in singing, reading, speaking, and in musical instruments. 
The enjoyment of pleasant flavors and odors leads us to cul- 
tivate the means, by which they are produced. 

1 8 . The cultivation and development of the Senses 
not only influence our tastes and desires, but also our 
feelings and thoughts. 

In the language of another, " The Senses like all the forces 
of nature are liable to be misdirected and perverted in their 
action. When thus falsely developed, they produce evil ef- 
fects, which are the opposite of the good effects produced by 
their legitimate action. This law is of universal application 
to all active forces. Developed in their lower degrees, the 
senses give rise to coarseness, vulgarity, licentiousness, and 
brutality. Without refined cultivation, the sense of taste 



Peop. 3.] FIRST EXERCISE. 23 

leads to grossness of appetite, to gluttony, to gormandism, to 
drunkenness, and intemperance. Hearing is pleased with 
noise and vociferation ; sight, with tawdry forms and colors ; 
touch, with rude textures and uncleanly objects. The same 
senses developed in their higher degrees, harmoniously dis- 
ciplined and refined in their action, excite the love of mate- 
rial order, elegance, and beauty ; guard man against coarse- 
ness, vulgarity, slovenliness, and sensual discords generally ; 
stimulate him to refined tastes and habits ; and awaken in him 
the sentiment of universal art." 



First Exercise. 

Let the following questions be read by the pupils in turn ; each pupil answering 
the question, which he has just read. Other questions of a similar nature should be 
proposed by the Teacher and by the pupils. 

When reviewing let the pupils write the answers in full, and give original il- 
lustrations. 

(A pupil reads.) 1. What is Sentential Language? (and then an- 
swers. ) Sentential Language is language used to contain or to convey 
knowledge. ( And so forth with the other questions.) 

2. Are the words in the columns of a Spelling-Book Sentential lan- 
guage ? 

3. What is meant by the term knowledge ? 

4. What is the difference between knowledge and understanding 1 

5. What is that called, which men have learned concerning the 
stars ? 

6. What is that called, which men have learned about digging ores 
from the earth 1 — about making clothing, tools, &c. 

When a part of a question is omitted, the pupil, to whom the question comes, 
should supply the part omitted, taking the previous question as a model. Thus " What 
is that called, which men have learned about making clothing ?" &c. with tools. 

7. What is that kind of knowledge called, which we find for our- 
selves ? 

8. Have you any Personal knowledge of steamboats ? — any Primary 
knowledge of steamboats ? 

9. Have you any personal knowledge of the pain caused by blows in- 
flicted on yourself ? — on another ? 

10. What is the difference between Primary and Personal Knowl- 
edge ? 

11. Is your knowledge of sweet and sour Primary or Personal? 



24 FIRST EXERCISE. 



[Book I. 



12. How is the first part of our Primary and Personal Knowledge 
gained ? 

13. Why is our Primary Knowledge sometimes called "Our Knowl- 
edge of external things ?"— " sensuous Knowledge V 

14. How many Senses are mentioned? 

15. Do the Senses belong to the mind or to the body ? 

16. Give the name and use of each of the Senses ? 

17. By what sense do you distinguish odors?— light ?—- force ? — 
forms ? — colors ? — weight ? — flavor ? 

18. Is your knowledge of water personal ? Through how many and 
what senses have you learned it ? 

19. Apply the two questions in the 18th Paragraph to each of the fol- 
lowing objects ; fire, food, fruits, flowers, clothing. 

20. What is the difference between the Sense of Sight, and the Or- 
gan of the Sense of Sight ? 

21. Does the Organ belong to the mind or to the body ? 

22. Do you know a person, whose Sense of Sight is remarkably well 
developed 1 If so, is it natural, or the result of using and thus devel- 
oping this Sense % 

What is that person's occupation ? 
What Organ belongs to this Sense 1 

What is a person said to be, who is deprived of this Sense * 
What objects serve as lessons in developing this Sense ? 
Can it be developed without giving attention to these objects 1 
23. Now you may apply the questions in article 22 to each of the 
following subjects; touch, taste, smell, feeling, hearing, muscular 

24 If one be deprived of the Organs of Sense, can he have a per- 
sonal knowledge of external things % 

25. What studies are best fitted to develop the Senses t Why t 

26. Does the proper gratification of the Senses increase or diminish 
their capacity for enjoyment ? 

27. To what Sense does music appeal, and what is the organ of that 
sense ' 

28. Apply the questions in the 27th article to these ; drawing: ball- 
playing, fruit-growing, -reading, the cultivation of flowers, the use of 
tobacco, snuff, elegant dress, and odors. 

29. Can the Senses be falsely or improperly developed ! 

i 3 h ^? n im P r °P erl F developed, to what does the Sense of sight 
lead ? When properly developed, to what ? 

31. Apply the last two questions to each of these; hearing touch 
taste, smell. ' 

These questions or exercises are to be regarded only as examples, 
bimilar exercises should accompany every recitation. 



Prop. 4.] EXTERNAL KNOWLEDGE PERFECTED. 25 



PROPOSITION FOURTH. 

lc Our Knowledge of External Things, or Sensuous 
Knowledge, is perfected by Seven Mental Operations 
or Actions ; 1. Sensation, 2. Attention, 3. Perception, 
4. Memory, 5. Imagination, 6. Reason, and 7. Judg- 
ment. 

2. Sensations are the Mental effects, produced on 
the Senses by External objects. 

Sensation is a waking-up process, by which the mind is 
aroused to exert itself. Its accuracy and readiness depend on 
the development of the Senses, and the consequent develop- 
ment of their Organs, 

3. Attention is the ability to keep the mind directed 
to the proper object at the proper time. 

As the Organs of sense may be improved by keeping 
them in a sound and healthy state, so may the sensations, 
produced through these organs, be improved by careful at- 
tention to them. Notice the difference in the capacity to dis- 
tinguish and appreciate sounds between the skilful musician, 
and a person, who has never attended to the cultivation of 
this Sense. By attending to the sensation of hearing the 
musician has gained the power to hear with so much more 
ease and correctness than the other. . 

4. The repeated performance of an.action, which is 
forcible at first, soon becomes habitual, and " We all 
know something of the power of habit. It becomes a 
second nature, and sometimes more than a match for 
Nature herself." 

At first the student of music finds it difficult to trace a melody, 
or simple succession of single sounds ; at length, however, 

2 * 



26 ATTENTION AND INATTENTION. [Book I. 

by attention thereto (we sometimes call it practice or study), 
he is able almost without effort, not only to produce the mel- 
ody, but also its accompanying harmonies ; to sing the words 
and to direct the performances of many others. 

Monsieur Jullien conducted concerts, in which ten or 
twelve hundred vocal and instrumental performers took parts, 
and the sounds were produced not only by the voices and or- 
dinary musical instruments, but also by means of anvils, 
boxes, horse-fiddles, &c. The effect was not only pleasing 
but delightful. 

Notice also the difference in the ability to combine num- 
bers rapidly and well between " little Willie," studying " the 
tables," and Mr. William, the skilful accountant or engineer. 
All is the result of habit growing from attention. 

5. Inattention is a state of mind opposed to atten- 
tion, and every one, who is not habitually attentive, is 
habitually inattentive; there is no intermediate or 
neutral state. 

Probably there is no one, who is entirely devoid of the abil- 
ity to fix the attention on some certain objects. The great 
fault is that, while all attend so much to their Sensations, or to 
what is passing in connection with the Senses, so few attend 
sufficiently to what else is passing in their minds. The former, 
like the brutes, become gross and sensuous in their habits 
and enjoyments. 

" He, who from childhood has accustomed himself to neg- 
lect all his sensations, excepting those which minister only to 
his animal wants and pleasures, has lost what the gold of 
California can not redeem. If such has been his course up 
to manhood, the die is cast ; he may he much of an animal 
hut he never will be much of a man" — Window. 

" There is a class of intellectual habits, habits of inatten- 
tion, by which the mind, long unaccustomed to have the at- 
tention steadily directed to any important object, becomes 
frivolous and absent, or lost amid its own waking dreams. 
A mind in this condition becomes incapable of following a 

m 



Prop. 4.] PERCEPTION — MEMORY. 27 

train of reasoning, and even of observing facts with accuracy 
and tracing their relations. Hence nothing is more opposed 
to the cultivation of intellectual character; and when such 
a person attempts to reason or to follow out a course of in- 
vestigation, he falls into slight and partial views, unsound de- 
ductions, and frivolous arguments. This state of mind, 
therefore, ought to be carefully avoided by the young ; since, 
when it is once established, it can be removed only by a 
long and laborious effort, and after a certain period of life is 
probably irremediable." — Abercrombie. 

G. Perception is the mental process, by which, in the 
first place, we discover our sensations and their causes, 
and, in the second place, discover our other mental 
operations. 

As when a sleeper is disturbed, he is sensible of it before 
he perceives what it is that disturbs him, so the mind may 
be conscious of a Sensation before it perceives the cause of 
that sensation. 

7. These Perceptions are sometimes called Ideas or 
Notions. 

The habit of attention is as necessary and as productive 
of good results in its influences on Perception, as on Sensa- 
tion. It is not sufficient that objects produce sensations 
through the organs of sense, the Perceptive Faculties must 
be aroused to attend to them. It is by this exercise that the 
Perceptive Faculties are developed. 

8. Memory is the mental act of retaining our pres- 
ent and recalling our past perceptions, in order that 
they may be compared and combined to produce new 
kinds of knowledge. 

Memory should not be confounded with Association. Mem- 
ory simply recalls or retains a single perception without con- 
necting it with any other perception. 



28 PERCEPTION AND CONCEPTION* [Book I. 

The habit of attention has a strong influence on the re- 
sults, produced by the memory. In order that a fact may be 
well remembered, it must be attentively considered until it 
becomes somewhat familiar. 

A great deal is said about "Cultivating the memory," 
"Exercising the memory," &c, as if the memory justly 
claimed more attention than all the other intellectual powers. 
So far from objecting, we even demand its most perfect cul- 
ture, but only as being one function, and as such, only en- 
titled to its proper share of attention. Just as in training the 
physical powers while we seek to develop the muscles, we 
reject a system of diet or of exercise, which would develop 
muscles to the neglect or at the expense of the bones and 
nerves, or either of these to the neglect of the others. 

To produce the best specimens of our race, all the powers, 
moral, social, intellectual, and physical, should be equally and 
harmoniously developed. 

No faculty of the mind is more abused and perverted than 
the Memory. Instead of carefully following such a First or 
Primary course of exercises, as would naturally tend to 
mental development, and then following this course with an 
Advanced or Secondary course, arranged in that order, in 
which the mind most easily and surely acquires Knowledge, 
the learner is too often required to commit and to repeat the 
words of an author ; and oftentimes the portions committed 
are only answers forming a part of a subject, of which the 
question itself is the other part. Thus the questioner re- 
cites one part of the lesson and the pupil the other part, and 
hence very often fails to know either. 

Memorized Knowledge is not practical or useful ; nor can 
it become such until it has been subjected to the higher men- 
tal operations. 

9. Our knowledge of a present sensation is called 
a Perception, while the memory of a past sensation is 
called a Conception. 

Thus while hearing music, I have a perception of the 



Prop. 4.] IMAGINATION — IDEAS AND NOTIONS. 29 

sensations caused by it; the memory or remembrance of 
these is called a conception of the sensations. 

10. Imagination is the mental faculty, which, in the 
first place, forms new combinations of that knowledge, 
which has been learned by the faculties preceding it ; 
and, in the second place, of that knowledge, which we 
have learned through the exercise of all the mental 
faculties. 

Thus children use their playthings to represent the per- 
sons, 'with whom they imagine or fancy themselves to be 
holding intercourse. No matter how little the playthings re- 
semble the persons, the children call each thing by the name 
of the person it represents, and address it, as if really a con- 
scious being like themselves. 

When the child grows older the names of the persons, 
without the things, will answer the purpose. The difference 
between the child and the adult is not in the mental opera- 
tions used, since these are the same in both, but in the means, 
by which each is assisted. The child requires the material 
objects to assist its mental operations, while the adult needs 
only the names of the persons. Both alike are "building 
castles in the air." 

Eobert Fulton, by seeing the paddle-wheels of a ferry-boat 
turned by horses and afterward by seeing a steam-engine 
working a pump, was led to imagine a boat, whose paddle- 
wheels should be turned by a steam-engine, and thus invented 
the steam-boat. He neither invented the engine nor the 
paddle-wheel, but simply imagined the union of the two in- 
ventions. ^ 

1 1 . The term Imagination is often applied to those 
Ideas or Notions of the forms or properties, which we 
ascribe to objects unknown to us except by name or by 
description. These imaginations are also called Ideas 
or Notions. 



30 CONCEPTION — ABSTRACTION. [Book I. 

Thus the image, which the name of a person well-known 
to us recalls, is a conception, while the image brought to our 
minds by the name of a person, whom we have never seen, 
is an imagination. Both are mental pictures. A dream is 
a mental picture also. 

While reading descriptions we should pause frequently 
pud endeavor to imagine or produce mental pictures of the 
objects described. 

12. Sometimes, by an effort of the Imagination, we 
consider a property of things separately. As when 
we speak of number, size, color, &c, not in connec- 
tion with objects. This action of the Imagination is 
called Abstraction, which means to take from or to 
separate. 

13. All human progress depends upon the proper 
development and exercise of the Imagination. 

The inventor must see his invention in all its parts and 
workings as perfectly and distinctly before it is made, as 
others see it when completed. Hence the necessity of using 
the Imagination in all attempts to promote Physical Ex- 
cellence ; as in the Useful Arts, agriculture, manufactures, 
economy, health, &c. ; also in the Fine Arts, as reading, paint- 
ing, music, sculpture, gardening, &c. ; to promote Social 
Order, as in the different relations of mankind in forming 
society ; in those relations, which are formed by nature, by 
law, by necessity, by the affections, &c. ; to promote Intel- 
lectual Development both by inciting us to acquire a 
knowledge of what is true, orderly, useful, and beautiful in 
science, and to lead us to study the Creator through his 
works and through his word — "The book of Nature, and 
the book of Grace ;" and to promote Moral Excellence, 
by enabling us to imagine a Being possessing virtues superior 
to our own. For mankind will be good and virtuous only in 
proportion as they are able to imagine a Being, who is good 
and virtuous. " Show me the Deity a man worships, and I 



Prop. 4.] HUMAN PROGRESS — REASON. 31 

will show you that man's morality." All religious knowledge 
to a certain degree depends on the Imagination for its ap- 
preciation. 

We must first form some ideal or model character, after 
which to form our own ; hence the importance that all, but 
most especially the youth, should habitually observe and re- 
member those traits of character and those habits of others, 
which are pleasing or displeasing, and, therefore, to be imitated 
or to be shunned. Remembering, that " Whatever in others 
is pleasing to us, will, in us, be pleasing to others." 

The imagination is always an active faculty. When not 
employed in furnishing models for improvement, it will be 
found actively and busily engaged in " imagining vain things." 
When neglected, it at length loses its capacity for good, and 
then " imagines evil and only evil continually." Hence come 
human fears and vain superstitions. 

Imagination " tends to the cultivation of sympathy and the 
benevolent affections, and promotes all those feelings, which 
exert so extensive an influence in the duties of friendship, 
and the harmonies of civil and social intercourse. We may 
even say, that we exercise the imagination, when we en- 
deavor to act upon that high standard of morals, which re- 
quires us c to do unto others, as we would they should do unto 
us! For in this mental act we must imagine ourselves in 
the situation of other men, and, in their characters, judge of 
our own conduct toward them." — Abercrombie. 

14. Reason is the mental process of examining the 
correctness of our perceptions, and also of the com- 
binations, produced by the imagination. It is also that 
mental act, by which we draw new truths from those 
already known. 

Thus, when Fulton had imagined the Engine on board of 
the boat, he would begin to reason as to the possibility of 
driving the boat by this means. He would recall the various 
means, as sails, oars, and wheels, by which he had seen boats 



32 REASON — INTUm YE KNOWLEDGE. [Book I. 

driven. He would remember that horses turned the wheel 
and would reason, that the engine could be made equal in 
power to any number of horses. He would also reason, that, 
if the wheels were made to revolve, the boat must move, 
since not the hind of force, by which they were turned, 
but the quantity, would affect the boat's motion. Thus he 
would satisfy himself of the 'possibility of propelling a boat 
by steam. Then he would examine the probability, and 
forthwith the increased facilities for transporting passengers 
and merchandise and also the freedom from detention by 
winds and tides would be suggested, and then he would feel 
that the probability of steam-driven boats needed no longer 
to be doubted. 

Lastly, he would look at the necessity of this or of some other 
improved method of propelling boats for the accommodation 
of the rapidly-increasing demands of trade and travelling. 

15. The examination- of the possibilities, the prob- 
abilities, and the necessities or demands, we call Re- 
flecting? Thinking, or Reasoning. The Results are 
called Conclusions, Reflections, Thoughts, Reasons, 
Opinions, &g. 

A person, who will not reason in regard to his actions, but 
follows obstinately his own desires, is said to be unreasonable, 
unthinking or thoughtless, unreflecting or without reflection, 
obstinate, &c. 

16, Some Statements or Propositions are so simple, 
that we are not conscious of reasoning in regard to 
them. We seem both to understand them and to know 
that they are true, as soon as they are distinctly stated 
to us. These statements are called Intuitive Knowl- 
edge or Knowledge by Intuition; as — 

1. A part is less than the whole. 

2. We ought to love what is good and hate what is evil. 

3. Whatever is not eternal must have had a beginning. 



Prop. 4.] AXIOMS OR FIRST TRUTHS. 33 

Since we can not have a conscious process of reasoning 
before we see and fully know the truth of Intuitive Knowl- 
edge, it follows that Intuitive Knowledge neither requires 
nor admits proof by reasoning. " To know it is to prove it." 

17. Intuitive Knowledge includes two items. 

First; A knowledge of our own Identity ', or the 
knowledge, that we are the same individuals, whom 
we remember as ourselves. 

Second; The truth of certain statements, which are 
called Axioms or First Truths. 

18. We divide Axioms or First Truths into three 
kinds ; Mathematical, Moral, and Metaphysical or 
Ethical. 

19. Mathematical Axioms refer to statements of 
existence, time, space, &c. ; as — 

1. The whole of a thing is greater than any part of it. 

2. Things equal to the same thing are equal to each other. 

20. Moral Axioms refer to our duties to our Crea- 
tor, to our fellow-men, and to ourselves ; as — 

1. If God is supremely good, we ought to love him su- 
premely. 

2. There is a moral distinction between truth and false- 
hood. 

3. We ought to love what is right and hate what is wrong. 

31. Metaphysical or Ethical Axioms refer to the 
possibility, probability, and necessity ; as — 

1. All things, which do not contradict God's nature, are 
possible with Him. 

2. Every effect must have a cause. 

3. An effect can not precede its cause. 

" In every process of reasoning, we proceed by founding 
one step upon another, which has gone before it; and when 

2* 



34 REASONING FROM FIRST TRUTHS. [Book I. 

we trace such a process backward, we must arrive at certain 
truths, which are recognized as fundamental, requiring no 
proof and admitting of none." — Abercrombie. 

" The faculty of reasoning exists in different individuals 
in very different degrees. There is the same diversity here, 
which is found to exist in respect to every other mental sus- 
ceptibility and mental process. In some persons it is not 
even powerful enough to meet the ordinary exigencies of life, 
and hardly rescue its possessor from the imputation of idiocy; 
in others it elevates human nature, and bestows extraordinary 
grasp and penetration. And between the extremes of extra- 
ordinary expansion and marked imbecility, there are multi- 
tudes of distinct grades, almost every possible variety." — 
Upham. 

S3. All reasoning is founded on these First Truths. 
That is, we go back to a first truth as a starting point, 
from which to reason, because all must admit the truth 
of these statements ; and then by other statements or 
propositions connect these axioms with a conclusion ; as 

All created things must have had a beginning. 
The world is a created thing. 

Because, 1. It shows skill. 

2. It shows design. 

3. It shows adaptation to an end. 

It could not show skill, design, and adaptation without be- 
ing created subject to these. 

But it could not have been created subject to these with- 
out a Creator. 

Since it had a Creator it must be a created thiffg. 

Therefore, since the earth is a created thing, it must have 
had a beginning. 

Reasoning or Thinking is the most exalted exercise of the 
human intellect, and to its development, our efforts should 
mainly be directed. This is done, when we accustom our- 
selves to seek and to produce the reasons of those things, 



Prop. 4.] RULES FOR REASONING. 35 

facts, principles, and rules, which are the subjects of our 
studies. 

Mankind alone of all God's creatures are endowed with 
Reason. The other animals have only that lesser light called 
Instinct, which is limited to each individual of the race in its 
exercise and in the extent of its culture, while Reason is un- 
limited in the extent of its development, and capable of an 
ever-increasing expansion of its powers. 

In this exercise all the individuals of each generation may 
participate, and each may take, for its starting point, the high- 
est development reached by the preceding generation. 



Rules to be observed in Reasoning. 

First Rule. Be careful to make the object or aim 
of all your reasoning the discovery of the truth, in- 
stead of a silly desire to gain a victory, as a debater. 

The discovery of truth is the great object of Reasoning or 
Debating, and these again are the best means for finding the 
truth. When used for its discovery, there is no more noble 
and improving mental exercise. But too often debates de- 
generate into mean efforts to appear to be smart — to gain a 
victory. Acting under this wrong motive, the reasoner is 
easily led to misstate facts and to misquote or pervert author- 
ities, until, by attempting to deceive others, his own mind be- 
comes confused and finally perverted. He becomes incapa- 
ble of distinguishing truth from error, and is finally "left to 
his own delusions to believe a lie." 

The writer knew one such. A young man possessing fine 
natural powers of mind. He was seized with a silly desire 
to appear smart and for a time he succeeded. His views, 
new and surprising to us, were so perfectly sustained by cita- 
tion of authorities, and even by quotations, that we were all 
confounded at our own ignorance. At length it was dis- 
covered, that his quotations could not be found in the authors 



36 EULES FOR REASONING. [Book I. 

named, and more than that, oftentimes passages were found 
in those same authorities directly opposed to the pretended 
quotations. From this point the tale is short. Those, who 
knew him, distrusted his statements. He, in turn, seemed to 
distrust others and to lose his own self-respect. He was left 
to his own delusions and became a miserable vagabond. The 
history of the learned Chillingworth furnishes another re- 
markable instance of a similar perversion. 

Second Rule. State carefully the subject to be dis- 
cussed^ and see in what points of it you and the 
others agree, and in what you, disagree. Only the 
latter points require discussion. 

Some persons never discuss the point at issue, but begin 
with a complaint that the subject is " too broad/' or " too nar- 
row," or " is not the subject," &c. 

If it be a subject, which you can not discuss, keep silence 
and listen to the others, that you may learn from them. 

Third Eule. Consider carefully the evidence, 
which you are about to offer. Try to look at it as 
those opposing will look at it, and see if you can 
meet the arguments thus suggested. 

Fourth Rule. Classify your arguments or evi- 
dence by noticing what parts of it make your views 
possible, what probable, and what necessary. If 
you tose the three kinds, state them in the above 
order. 

Question. " Is the Bible the word of God ?" 
I affirm that the Bible is the word of God. By which I 
mean that the Bible is truly a means of communication be- 
tween the Creator and his creatures, and I shall attempt to 
prove it by tjvo kinds of evidence or argument ; the one ex- 
ternal to the Bible, the other internal. 

First. Because it is possible for God to make such revela- 
tion, since, by so doing, He would not contradict any of His 



Prop. 4.] JUDGMENT. 37 

attributes. Nay, more, it does accord with His benevolence, 
and He is all-powerful and wise to do what He wills. It is, 
therefore, possible. 

Second. Because it is probable. For so good a Being 
would not leave His creatures without the means of instruc- 
tion in all, that pertains to their welfare. His other works 
are fitted and have the means for their perfect development. 
Mankind could not learn the spirit's development, as a soul, 
without such revelation. . Hence it is probable that the Crea- 
tor would add this revelation for the perfection of His work. 

Third. Because it is necessary. Man can not elsewhere 
find that knowledge, which the Bible contains. I prove this 
by the following facts ; — 

1. The wisest and most earnest of the race had sought it 
for centuries, but had not found it. 

2. It is so peculiar that it is exceedingly dubious whether 
it could ever have been discovered by the race. 

3. Without it, the race could never reach that development, 
for which it is fitted and destined. 

As I have shown that my proposition, concerning the truth 
of the Bible, involves nothing impossible, nor improbable, and, 
as I have also shown, that a necessity for such a communica- 
tion does exist, I draw my first conclusion that externally 
we have every reason to believe the Bible to be true. 

I have now only to show, by a similar train of arguments 
as to its internal evidence, that the Bible is that communi- 
cation and my Reasoning reaches its Conclusion. 

33. Judgment is the mental act of choosing- or de 
tiding according to the results of our reflections o? 
reasonings. 

Thus, when Fulton had reflected or reasoned upon the pos- 
sibility, the probability, and the necessity or demand for the 
steam-driven boat, he decided or judged that it could and 
would be done, and this mental decision or result we call, 
Judgment. 

Judgment has been likened to a judge, who hears the tes- 



38 PREJUDICE. [6ook L 

timony and the reasonings of both parties and finally decides 
according to the weight of the evidence. 

24. Judging or forming our opinions before we 
reason or reflect on a subject, or before we know the 
facts in regard to the matters, is called pre-judging or 
Prejudice. 

It is unjust to others to entertain prejudiced opinions against 
them, and it is wrong toward ourselves. Another has the 
same right to be '"'judged according to his cause/' that I have 
to be judged according to mine. 

An excellent means of exercising and testing our own 
power of judging correctly, may be found in studying very 
carefully the evidence, statements, and arguments offered in a 
case, then sum up and render a judgment before studying 
that, which others have rendered. Then we may compare 
our judgment with the other and thus test both. 

" "What a piece of work is man ! * How noble in reason ! 
How infinite in faculties ! In form and moving, how express 
and admirable ! In action, how like an angel ! In appre- 
hension, how like a god ! The beauty of the world ! The 
paragon of animals !" — Shakspeare. 



First Exercise. (See page 23.) 

1. Is your knowledge of snow " external knowledge" ? 

2. How many and what mental operations are used in gaining exter- 
nal knowledge ? 

3. TVTiat other name may be given to external knowledge ? 

4. "What are the first and second mental operations to be used in gain- 
ing it ? 

5. If I place a bank-bill between the leaves of a book and offer to 
give it to the one, who will find it the first time turning the leaves, 
would any one be apt to find it ? Why ? 

6. Why can sailors and farmers generally foretell the weather with a 
good degree of certainty 1 



Prop. 4.] SECOND EXERCISE. 39 

7. Which will detect more readily the difference in sounds, the musi- 
cian, or one who has paid no attention to music 1 Why ? 

8. What are animal wants ? 

9. Which is the higher, the gratification of our intellectual, or of our 
animal natures ? Which can the brute enjoy as well as man 1 Which 
not ? Why ? 

10. Why does one person understand and know more of a subject 
than another ? 

11. Can we cultivate the habit of attention ? 

12. While the Teacher is explaining a lesson, if James listens atten- 
tively, and John opens a book, or plays with something, will both ac- 
quire the same habit ? Why ? 

13. Which of the two last mentioned will you imitate? Why? 

14. What is the difference between Sensation and Perception? Per- 
ception and Conception ? 

15. If I say, "How is the surface of the earth divided?" and you 
say, " Into land and water," which of us tells the whole story ? 

16. What are the fourth and fifth mental faculties, and what is their 
difference ? 1 

17. Before seeing a thing, did you ever try to imagine how it would 
look ? Did it correspond with the thing, when you saw it ? 

18. Did the inventor of the mowing-machine have any idea as to how 
it would look and work before it was built ? — sewing-machine ? Why ? 
Steam-engine ? Why ? 

19. Why should we not read the "Narratives" of bad men, as pi- 
rates, murderers, &c. ? 

20. How can you tell what in yourself will be pleasing to others ? — 
displeasing ? 

21. How can I best learn how "to do unto my neighbor, as I would 
wish him to do unto me" ? What is this rule often called ? 

22. What are the Sixth and Seventh mental operations ? 

23. Do all men reason equally well ? Do brutes reason ? 

24. Would you like to be able to reason clearly and to judge cor- 
rectly ? By what means may you develop these powers ? 

25. Name the mental faculties in their order, and try to give an ex- 
ample or illustration of your own with each. 

26. Name the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Propositions, and 
give examples, which are not in the book. 

•27. Recite the quotation from Shakspeare. 



40 SECOND KIND OF PRIMARY KNOWLEDGE. [Book I. 



PROPOSITION FIFTH. 

1. Our Knowledge of Internal Things or Inter- 
nal Knowledge is learned by observing what our own 
minds do, and the manner in which it is done. It also 
includes those new truths, drawn from truths already- 
known by the mental process called Reasoning, Re- 
flecting, or Thinking, and hence it is often called Ra- 
tional Knowledge. (See Prop. 3.) 

S. In acquiring Internal or Rational Knowledge, 
we use all of the Mental Processes except Sensation. 

Thus, I may perceive, remember, imagine, reason, and 
judge, concerning my own mental operations in perceiving, 
remembering, imagining, reasoning, and judging, or the whole 
may be used on those new truths, derived from what has 
been already learned and stored up in the mind, as " food for 
thought," as these same mental processes were used at first in 
regard to the sensations themselves. 

3. Again, not only can the Mental faculties be ap- 
plied to our knowledge of the External -and thus cause 
it to be the basis of our Internal or Rational Knowl- 
edge, but it is absolutely necessary that these faculties 
be so applied ; since without the External or Sensuous, 
as a basis, no Internal or Rational Knowledge can be 
developed. 

If we wish to get a personal knowledge of the position, 
elevation, • and waters, of the state of New York, we must 
visit the state itself, and thus obtain our knowledge of these 
things by the aid of our own sensation, perception, and mem- 
ory. The knowledge, thus obtained, is External or Sensu- 
ous, and is the First Kind of Primary or Personal Knowl- 
edge. 



Prop. 6.] KNOWLEDGE FROM TESTIMONY: 41 

Now, if we wish to learn the evenness and the inclination 
of the Surface of the state, we recall our perceptions of its 
elevations ; remember that we perceived mountains, hills, 
table-lands, valleys, and plains ; imagine a surface thus di- 
versified ; reason, that whenever a surface is thus diversified, 
it must be rough or uneven, and hence judge or decide, the 
surface of the state of New York to be uneven. 

To find the inclination of its surface, we examine our con- 
ceptions of its elevations and of its internal waters ; those in 
the southern and eastern parts of the state flowing southerly, 
while those in the northern and western parts flow in a gen- 
eral direction west of north ; and thus we perceive that a 
line drawn from a point a little below the northeastern to an- 
other point in latitude 42d degree, near the southwestern cor- 
ner of the state, would divide the sources of these waters ; 
then a little reflection would show us that the surface of the 
state ljas two general inclinations or "Watersheds." The 
one Southerly, the other West of North. Thus, we learn the 
Inclination, by reflecting, or thinking, or reasoning on our 
external or sensuous Knowledge of the surface, and the 
Knowledge thus learned is called, "Internal" or " Rational," 
and is one part of the Second Kind of our Primary or Per- 
sonal Knowledge. 



PROPOSITION SIXTH. 

1. Our Secondary Knowledge or Knowledge De- 
rived from Testimony is that, which is discovered by 
others and is taught to us. This constitutes by far the 
greater part of what we know. 

We know that there are such Cities as London, Paris, and 
Pekin, and such Countries as Russia, Austria, and California, 
not because we have seen them for ourselves, but through 
the testimony of others, who have seen them. 



42 WE MUST TEST SECONDARY KNOWLEDGE. [Book I. 

2. This Secondary or Derived Knowledge is of two 
Kinds ; First, that whose truth or correctness we can 
test for ourselves ; and Second, that whose truth or 
correctness we can not test or examine for ourselves. 

3. That Secondary Knowledge, which we can test 
for ourselves, is mainly such as we find in the Sciences. 
When we do examine and test its truthfulness, it be- 
comes a part of our Primary Knowledge. 

Thus, if I learn by being told, or from a book, that an acid 
and an alkali in solution will bubble or effervesce when mixed 
together, I may believe it without further proof, because I 
have confidence in the wisdom and truthfulness of the source, 
whence I received it ; but if I stop here, then my knowledge 
of this subject is only Secondary, or, as it is sometimes famil- 
iarly called, " Knowledge at second hand." If, however, I 
do not stop here but try the experiment for myself anjd find 
the statement true, then I know it personally and it becomes 
a species of Primary knowledge. In the former case, my 
knowledge is of the Science or Theory, or Theoretical Knowl- 
edge ; in the latter, it is a Knowledge of the Art also, or 
Practical Knowledge. 

4. Hence the following Rule. Test hy experiments 
or hy demonstrations those Propositions, which 
claim to he statements of scientific truths or prin- 
ciples. 

Knowledge made familiar by experiment is always of the 
most interesting and the most useful kind ; and hence the 
Natural Sciences should always be presented both Theoret- 
ically and Practically. Now, it often happens in teaching, 
that the Natural Sciences, probably from the trouble of mak- 
ing the experiments, are generally made too theoretical, while 
the Mathematics, from the want of text-books, in which the 
science is properly arranged, are made too practical, and, 
therefore, neither is as profitable and interesting as it might 
and would be if properly presented. 



Prop. 6.] LAWS .OF TESTIMONY. 43 

While it is impossible for eacli one to discover all that is 
necessary for each to know, it is perfectly possible and easy 
for each to examine or to investigate all the statements and 
reasonings, which it is necessary to accept from others. It 
has been said that "a single intellect may investigate the 
facts and reasonings of scientific truths in less time, than a 
million intellects employed in their discovery/' 

5, That kind of our Secondary Knowledge, which 
we can not test or examine for ourselves, is chiefly such 
as is found in history, biography, travels, &c. ; and 
most especially that, which pertains to our future state. 

6, When we can not examine the statements for our- 
selves, we must examine the Evidence or Testimony 
concerning them. In so doing, we follow certain Rules 
called the Laivs of Testimony. 

7, The Laws of .Testimony relate; first, to the 
Character; second, to the Capacity; third, to the 
Motives; fourth, to the Means of Knowing; and 
fifth, to our own previous Knowledge. 

First Law of Testimony. Our previous knowledge 
of the character of the person, from whom we re- 
ceive the statements, must he such, as to give us con- 
fidence in his honesty and candor. 

Is he honest ? That is, do we know him to be so habitu- 
ally truthful as never to state that for the truth, which he 
knows to be untrue. 

Is he candid? Will he speak his true sentiments un- 
swerved by fear or by favor ? If we can answer both of 
these questions in the affirmative, we may receive his state- 
ments. 

Our knowledge of a future state is learned directly from 
revelations, made to us by God himself, and we can place 
full confidence in his statements, because we can have the 
most entire confidence in his' honesty and candor. The only 



44 LAWS OP TESTIMONY. [Book I. 

chance for error is in our own liability to misunderstand 
him. 

Since we can not have the same degree of confidence in the 
characters of our fellow-men, as in the Divine Character, it 
follows that we can not accept their statements with the same 
confidence ; hence while it is the perfection of human wisdom 
to accept the Divine Word with the most entire confidence, 
it is the height of human folly to accept that of our fellow- 
men without attempts to prove it. 

When two men differ, we give preference to the statements 
of the one, whom we believe to be the better man. We have 
confidence in character. 

Second Law of Testimony. We must Jcnow that 
the person has sufficient intellectual capacity to in- 
vestigate the subject. 

If a person, whom we know to be utterly ignorant of the 
science of Astronomy, were to predict certain eclipses of the 
sun and give as his authority, that " He had calculated them 
for himself/' we would be very likely to reject his statements 
at once ; yet if one, known to be versed in astronomy, fore- 
told the same, we would at once accept them. We have con- 
fidence in capacity. 

Third Law of Testimony. We must le sure that 
the person has no motives or interests^ which would 
induce him to mislead us. 

Suppose that A recommends a certain part of the country 
for the excellence of its soil, its climate, and its inhabitants ; 
and, at another time, B says the same things of it, we would 
think B's the better testimony, if we knew that A owned a 
large amount of property there, while B owned none. We 
could easily see that A had or might have a motive, while 
we could see none on the part of B, and, therefore, would be 
the more disposed to believe his statements. 

Our confidence in Testimony is affected by the presence or 
absence of motives. 



Prop. 6.] LAWS OP TESTIMONY. 45 

Fourth Law of Testimony. We must lelieve that 
the person had the means or opportunity for observ- 
ing and learning the truth of his statements. 

We would place more confidence in Dr. Kane's statements 
as to facts concerning the Northern Arctic Ocean, than in the 
statements of a geographer, who had never visited those 
regions ; " Because," we would say, " the Dr. had the letter 
means or opportunity for learning those things." We have 
confidence in opportunity or means. 

Fifth Law of Testimony. His statements must 
not conflict with any well-known or established laws 
of Nature, unless he states them as miracles. 

If a person, who had been in Spain, should tell me that 
all the water there was as combustible as alcohol, I should 
not believe him, because I know that water is anti-combus- 
tible in its very nature. 

If the occurrence be stated as a miracle, then three condi- 
tions must be shown to have existed ; First, that the occasion 
was one of sufficient importance to demand a miracle, which 
is only another name for a change or temporary suspension, 
by the Creator, of some of those laws, which he, himself, en- 
joined on matter, and to change which does not involve any- 
thing inconsistent with the attributes of his character. Sec- 
ond, the circumstances, under which the miracle was per- 
formed, must have been such as to leave no chances for 
deception. It must have been in public and subject to the 
inspection of those, who could not easily be duped — who 
would be more disposed to doubt and reject, than to believe 
and accept. Third and lastly, he must show that the object 
to be accomplished was worthy of a miracle, instead of being 
an insignificant matter, unworthy of any, even the most trivial, 
special intervention of Divine Providence. 

We have confidence in that Divine Constitution of all 
things, which is called the Laws of Nature. 



46 THIRD EXERCISE. [Book X. 

Third Exercise. (See page 23.) 

1. What kind of our Knowledge is sometimes called Internal ? What 
other name for it ? 

2. How many and what mental faculties are used in its acquisition ? 
What faculty is not used l 

3. Which must be gained first, the Eational or the Sensuous ? Why ? 

4. Can we have Internal without External Knowledge ? 

5. What kind of knowledge do we get through the use of the senses ? 
— by thinking or reasoning ? 

6. Repeat the Fifth and Sixth Propositions. 

7. Suppose I say that a quart of water is heavier than a quart of oil, 
and you believe it ; what kind of knowledge is it to you ? What kind 
of knowledge is it if you weigh them ? 

8. What is the difference between the theory ajid the practice of a 
pursuit? What is the difference in teaching between telling me how 
to play the game of ball, and showing me how to do it ? 

9. Is it the Art or Science, when you tell me how to solve examples 
in arithmetic ? — When you show me ? 

10. If I study Chemistry without the experiments is my .chemical 
knowledge theoretical or practical ? Do I learn the Science or the Art 
of Chemistry ? When do I do both 3 

11. Recite the Fifth and Sixth Propositions. What is the difference 
between them. 

12. Is your knowledge of the city of London personal or derived? 
Why? 

13. Tell some of your derived knowledge. — Personal knowledge. 

14. Of which kind have you the larger share ? 

15. Which is generally the better understood, personal or derived 
knowledge ? 

16. Which is the more useful? 

17. Why do you not obtain all your knowledge personally ? 

18. How rapidly could a single intellect examine and understand 
knowledge, discovered by others ? 

19. Apply the Rules or Laws of Testimony to the following cases ; 

20. A, speaking of himself, declares that he is an honest man ; must 
you believe him ? Why ? 

21. What did our Savior say of a man bearing witness of himself? 
(Third Law.) 

22. Suppose that B, who is a warm friend to A, says the same of A, 
that A says of himself, would it be any better testimony ? Would you 
believe him sooner than A ? 

23. Suppose that C who is a bitter enemy to A, says the same ; would 
you believe C sooner than either of the others ? Why ? - 



Prop. 7.] CONCRETE THINKING. 47 

24. Suppose A confesses that he has done wrong, would you believe 
him sooner than you would in the former case 1 ? Suppose B says the 
sama of A, would it be better proof than the confession of A ? Sup- 
pose C says it, what then 1 

25. Which is the stronger testimony, that which we bear for or against 
ourselves ? 

26. Three persons, equally strangers to you, differ in statements con- 
cerning an event, which happened where A resided at the time, through 
which B was passing, and in which C had never been ; which would 
you be most inclined to believe ? (Fourth Law.) 

27. Suppose that you afterward found that A was of unsound mind, 
B a liar, and C a wise, honest man ; how would that affect your opin- 
ion'? (Second Law.) 

28. Suppose ten men tell you that "the bees in Ireland are as largo 
as sheep, and the beehives about the size of ours ;" what would you 
believe? (Fifth Law.) 



PEOPOSITION SEVENTH. 

1. Thinking' or Reasoning is divided into two 
kinds ; the Concrete or Subsensuous, and the Abstract 
or Super sensuous. (See page 30, §12.) 

2. Concrete or Supersensuous Thinking is that, in 
which the things themselves are considered in connec- 
tion with their properties or actions. 

Thus, if I think that two cents and three cents make Jive 
cents, it is a Concrete or Subsensuous thought. So, if T 
think of great oceans, great rivers, great mountains, great 
plains, and great gulfs, I have a Concrete or Subsensuous 
thought. 

Again, if I say " Mary and Jane sing charmingly ;" sing 
is used in the concrete, because it is used with the singers, 
Mary and Jane. 

3. Abstract or Supersensuous Thinking or Reason- 
ing is that, in which properties and actions are con- 
sidered distinct from the objects, to which they belong. 



48 ABSTRACT THINKING. [Book I. 

Thus, two and three are Jive is an Abstract or Supersensu- 
ous thought. So, thinking of greatness apart from objects is 
an Abstract or Supersensuous thought. 

Many attempts have been made to find the precise differ- 
ence between mankind and brutes. Probably it may be 
found in the capacity to think in the abstract. In man, this 
faculty seems to be unlimited in the extent of its develop- 
ment and in the range of its investigations. To what extent 
brutes possess it, we do not know, but it must be in a very 
limited degree, if at all. In regard to numbers, the human 
intellect seems to gain new powers only as it leaves the con- 
crete and exercises itself in the abstract ; while brutes seem 
to have but faint ideas of them, even when connected with 
things or in the concrete. While brutes are mainly confined 
within the range of their senses, man's limits are the infini- 
tesimal and the infinite. 



PROPOSITION EIGHTH. 

1 . We must learn to think in the Concrete before 
we can learn to think in the Abstract. 

The beginner soon perceives that two boys and three boys 
are five boys ; two men and three men are &ve men ; two 
cents and three cents are H\e cents ; and that two books and 
three books are ^ve books; since the familiar or Concrete 
terms serve to explain the less familiar or Abstract terms, 
two and three are Jive ; and hence, after a little practice, the 
Concrete may be changed to the Abstract with a fair degree 
of certainty that the Abstract will be understood. 

How unnatural to compel beginners, especially young chil- 
dren, to commit " the tables" of arithmetic, or the definitions 
and rules of grammar before they have gained any concrete 
or practical ideas of those things, to which these tables and 
rules belong. 

"The Concrete must always precede the Abstract." In 



Prop. 9.] THINKING. 49 

consequence of violating this rule, pupils have learned to 
combine numbers, and yet have been ignorant of arithmetic ; 
and have learned grammar without gaining a knowledge of 
the structure and use of language. 



PROPOSITION NINTH. 

1. In the process called Thinking, Reasoning, &c., 
we use Statements or Propositions, Comparison, and 
Association. 

2. Statements or Propositions are those expressions, 
which contain facts, principles, processes, descriptions, 
hypotheses or suppositions, &c. 

Facts — 1. Water is eight hundred and ten times the weight 
of air. 

2. A part is less than the whole. 

Principle — 3. Two lines forming an angle separate di- 
rectly as the distance from the angle. 

Process — 4. To form Hydrogen gas, pour dilute sulphuric 
acid on bits of iron or zinc. 

Description — 5. Hydrogen is the lightest substance in 
nature. 

Hypothesis or Supposition — 6. If thou be wise. 

7. Suppose A equal to B, and that G equals D. 

3. Statements or Propositions ar® of two kinds; 
namely, the Simple and the Compound. 

4. A Simple Statement or Proposition represents 
only one kind or class as acting or being ; as — 

1. William sleeps. 

2. Jamestown was in Virginia. 

3. In 1607, Jamestown was settled by the emigrants of 
the London Company. 

3 



50 COMPARISON. [Book L 

4. Jamestown was sometimes called the "Middle Settle- 
ment." 

5. Jamestown was destroyed by fire. 

6. The burning of Jamestown was in 1676, during Bacon's 
Rebellion. 

5. A Compound Statement or Proposition is formed 
by the union of two or more simple statements or 
propositions. 

In 1607, Jamestown in Virginia was settled by emigrants 
of the London Company. It was sometimes called the 
"Middle Settlement," and was destroyed by fire in 1676, 
during Bacon's Rebellion. 

6. Comparison is finding the likeness or the unlike- 
ness of objects. 

7. Comparison is of two kinds ; namely, Compari- 
son by Resemblance and Comparison by Contrast. 

8. Comparison by Resemblance is finding wherein 
objects are alike. This is sometimes called Simile. 

1. Hills in form and in the materials, of which they are 
composed, are like mountains. 

2. " As smoke to the eyes and vinegar to the teeth, so is 
the sluggard to them, that send him." 

9. Comparison by Contrast is finding wherein ob- 
jects differ. This is sometimes called Antithesis. 

1. Hills differ from mountains in size. 

2. Men are often unlike in size, in temper, in knowledge, 
and in virtue. 

10. Rule for the use of Compakison. 

Whenever it is possible, each neiv item of 'knowl- 
edge should be explained by corn/paring it with that, 
which is already familiar. Especially should this 
rule be obeyed in describing objects not presented to 
the senses. 



Prop. 9.] ASSOCIATION. 51 

Thus, in teaching language, the pupil should be made fa- 
miliar with the terms, principles, and rules of language in 
connection with his native tongue, and then all other lan- 
guages should be studied by comparison with this. By so 
doing, pupils will always go from what is known to what is 
unknown. 

Many, who do not understand their own, are now required 
to study an unknown language, which is to be translated into 
their own. How can a pupil, under such circumstances, be 
expected to learn either language correctly ? Ought we to 
be surprised that so many get only a smattering of the two ? 

When this principle of teaching by comparison is applied 
to the " Arabic system of Notation," in teaching arithmetic, 
its effects are truly surprising. We then begin to see that, 
" arithmetic, both as a science and as an art, is, indeed, only 
in its infancy." 

1 1 . Association is the union of two or more ideas, 
thoughts, or events, so that one of them shall recall 
the remainder. 

Association is often confounded with memory. The differ- 
ence is this ; association requires two or more objects ; mem- 
ory requires but one. 

Association retains and recalls one thing by its connection 
with another ; memory recalls it without that connection. 

While our power to remember is exceedingly limited, and 
very liable to fail entirely, our powers of association seem to 
be almost unlimited and ever-enduring. Old people forget 
the events of yesterday, while those of childhood are recalled 
with distinctness. The events of yesterday were trusted to 
the memory, those of childhood to association. 

" Lulled in the countless chambers of the brain, 
Our thoughts are linked by many a hidden chain. 
Awake but one, and lo, what myriads rise ! 
Each stamps its image, as the other flies. " 

Memory is the first mental faculty impaired by age, while 
association remains to the last unimpaired. 



52 ARBITRARY ASSOCIATION. [Book I. 

A lady, who in early life had cultivated a taste for flowers, 
retained her fondness for them to a remarkable extent, and 
also her knowledge of their names, even after she had for- 
gotten the names of all her children. The flowers had re- 
mained unchanged and each told its name by the associations 
of former years. The children had changed to adults and 
thus failed to renew those associations. 

A most excellent instance of the difference between mem- 
ory and association is found in the ability to retain the names 
of persons and the dates of events. 

Almost every person remembers the face of another, while 
but very few retain the name. Now, suppose that every 
one could associate the face and the name of a person, then 
the face would suggest the name. It is by this means that 
many do recall the names. 

Again, we easily remember an event, and as easily lose its 
date. Suppose that we attach numerical values to certain 
words and associate the words, bearing the date, with the 
event, it would be impossible to forget the date. Systems of 
this kind are called Mnemonics. 

12. There are three kinds of Association ; the Ar- 
bitrary or Fictitious , the Incidental or Local \ and the 
Philosophical or Natural. * 

13. Arbitrary or Fictitious Association is the union 
of two or more ideas simply because we choose to join 
them. 

When I tie a string around my finger to enable me to re- 
member an errand, there is no other connection between the 
string and the errand than that I choose to associate them. 

" When your children shall ask their fathers in time to 
come, saying, e What mean these stones ?' Then shall ye let 
your children know, saying, < Israel came over this Jordan 
on dry land.' " (Josh., chap, iv.) 

" And the bow shall be in the cloud ; and I will look upon 
it, that I may remember the everlasting covenant between 



Prop. 9.J LOCAL ASSOCIATION. 53 

God and every living creature of all flesh, that is upon the 
earth." (Gen., chap, ix.) 

14. Local or Incidental Association is that, in 
which one place or incident recalls another place or in- 
cident. 

In travelling a second time over the same road, the differ- 
ent objects recall the previous time ; the persons, who were 
with us ; the remarks, which were made, and our own feel- 
ings and thoughts. 

15. Animals possess this in common with men. 

Thus, the horse shows alarm on approaching a place 
where at some previous time he has been frightened. 

The knowledge of language, which brutes possess, is prob- 
ably this ; that with particular sounds, particular incidents or 
feelings are associated ; as pain, with the crack of a whip ; 
and eating, with the sound of the feed-box. 

16. Local Association causes those varied emo- 
tions, which we feel when revisiting the home of our 
childhood, and the scenes of former years. It often 
leads us to attach great importance to objects. 

" 'Tis bound by a thousand bands to my heart, 
Not a tie will break, not a link will start. 
Would you learn the spell ? A mother sat there ; 
And a sacred thing is that old arm-chair." 

It has been said that " Geography is one of the lights of 
history." This is true only when the locality of every histor- 
ical event is carefully observed; for not only do localities 
serve to explain history, but, when the locality of an event 
has been made familiar, it afterward serves to recall the event 
and the event in turn recalls the place. Therefore, in study- 
ing history the localities should be made familiar. 

17. Local or Incidental Association furnishes a 
strong reason why we should never do a wrong or bad 



54 NATUEAL ASSOCIATION. [Book I. 

deed. The place, wherein it was committed, and the 
person, against whom, will always be monuments to re- 
mind us of our wrong. It also furnishes a strong mo- 
tive to virtuous deeds, whose remembrance will always 
be a source of happiness. 

" How soft the music of those village-bells, 
Falling at intervals upon the ear. 
With easy force it opens all the cells, 
"Where feeling slept. Whenever I have heard 
A kindred melody, the scene recurs, 
And with it all its pleasures and its pains." 

1 8 . Philosophical or Natural Association is when 
the ideas have natural relations, as being parts of the 
same whole ; or having the relation of cause and effect. 

Thus, the head, body, and limbs, are parts of the whole 
person, and hence have a natural connection, so that if one 
be mentioned, the other is readily suggested. 

If I mention the parts of a plant in the confused order ; 
trunk, bud, limb, root, fruit, pith, twig, seed, bark, leaf, wood, 
branch, blossom, it would trouble another to reproduce them 
in this order ; but they may be easily reproduced, if stated 
in this, the natural order ; roots, trunk, branches, limbs, 
twigs, buds, leaves, blossoms, fruit, seeds ; bark, wood, pith. 

" A person was one day boasting, in the presence of Foote, 
the comedian, of the wonderful facility, with which he could 
commit anything to memory, when the modern Aristoph- 
anes said he would write down a dozen lines in prose, 
which he could not commit to memory in as many minutes. 
The man of great memory accepted the challenge ; a wager 
was laid, and Foote produced the following: — 'So she went 
into the garden, to cut a cabbage-leaf to make an apple-pie, 
and at the same time a great she-bear, coming up the street, 
pops its head into the shop. What, no soap ? So he died, 
and she very imprudently married the barber, and there were 
present the Piciniunies, and the Joblillies, and the Garyulies, 
and the grand Panjandrum himself, with the little round 



Prop. 9.] CAUSE AND EFFECT. 55 

button at the top ; and they all fell to playing catch as catch 
can, till the gunpowder ran out of the heels of their boots.' 
The story adds that Foote won the wager. And it is very 
evident, that statements of this description, utterly disregard- 
ing the order of" nature and events, must defy, if carried to 
any great length, the strongest memory ." — Upham. 

19. The relation of Cause and Effect is that con- 
nection of objects or events, which regards the one as 
producing the other. 

If one dies after swallowing poison, we say the Cause of 
the death was the poison ; the Effect of the poison was the 
death. 

20. We learn the relation of Cause and Effect by 
observation. 

Thus, if two events happen several times in succession, wc 
take the one for the cause and the other for the effect, and 
always afterward expect the one to produce or cause the 
other. That is, we associate the two. A child having fallen 
down a step will be more cautious afterward, because the 
local association will suggest the fall, which the child natu- 
rally associates or regards as the cause of the pain. 

2 1 . Our ideas of what is wholesome for food, suit- 
able for clothing, proper in society, true in science, 
pure in morals, and right in religion, find their basis 
in our firm conviction, that objects, actions, and 
thoughts are never single; that they exist as Cause 
and Effect, and that we are happy or miserable just as 
*we seek proper objects, do proper acts, and think 
proper thoughts. That is, we feel conscious that our 
happiness is the natural result or effect of our own 
virtue ; and that our unhappiness is equally the effect 
of our own wrong-doing. 

"Our consciences excusing or condemning us." 



56 CHAIN OF CAUSES AND EFFECTS. [Book L 

29. Rules in begaed to the relation of cause 
and effect* 

Fiest Rule. We must be careful to Tcnow that two 
things ha/ve the relation of cause and effect before 
acting too confidently in the belief. 

It is foolish to suppose, because I "saw the moon over my 
right shoulder," and afterward was successful, that, therefore, 
" to see the moon over the right shoulder is a sign of good 
luck." What possible relation can the two have ? 

Second Rule. There must he a necessary connec- 
tion between the two things or circumstances in or- 
der to have the relation of cause and effect ; and this 
must be learned either by experience or by testimony. 

Thus, I must not swallow poisons, because their natural ef- 
fect is to debilitate the body and to destroy life. 

I must " love my neighbor as myself," because it is doing 
right, and my own happiness is the effect of doing right. 



Causes. 


Effects. 


Thirst 


produces faintness ; 


Faintness 


causes weakness ; 


Weakness 


begets debility; 


Debility 


results in sickness ; 


and Sickness 


ends in death. 



Here we have " a chain of causes and effects." The Cause, 
Thirst, producing for its Immediate effect, faintness ; for its 
Remote effect, death ; and for its Intermediate effects, weak- 
ness, debility, and sickness. 

Effects. Causes. 

1. He became rich by patient industry. 

2. The fog was dispelled by the rising sun. 

Causes. Effects. 

8. The prosperity of the wicked shall slay them. 
4. Wisdom giveth life to them, that have it 



Prop. 9-1 FOURTH EXERCISE. 57 



Fourth Exercise. (See page 23.) 

1. Read the following and see which, are Concrete and which are Ab- 
stract. 

2. William studies. (Ans. Studies is concrete, because, &c.) 

3. Study increases Knowledge. Sugar is sweet. 

4. "Lengthened sweetness long drawn out." 

5. Diligent pupils find a great reward in learning. 

6. "Diligence is its own reward." "Seeing is believing." 

7. I saw the man and believed his story. 

8. Which of these are Concrete and which are Abstract 1 

John sees the book. Owls see in the night. Seeing is the result of 
using the sense of sight. 

9. Could you have an idea of color, if you had never been able to 
see? 

10. Could we learn to think in the Abstract, if we had never thought 
in the Concrete ? 

1 1 . When you read Robinson Crusoe, do you think you see a man 
on an island, &c. 1 What do you call that mental picture 1 

12. Do things, seen in dreams, resemble real things'? What kind of 
pictures do we see in dreams 1 

13. What is a Statement or Proposition % Give me one of your 
own. 

14. What am I doing, if I say, "A mill-pond is like a lake" ? What 
kind of Comparison is it ? 

15. Day-time is unlike night-time ; the former is light, the latter is 
dark. What kind of comparison is this ? 

- 16. Compare children to adults by resemblance — by contrast. 
A good man to a bad man. 
Washington to Bonaparte, " the uncle," by Simile and by Antithesis. 

17. What kind of association do you use, if you take a stick in your 
hand to make you remember an errand % 

18. What kind of association do you call the pile of stones, set up 
by the Israelites ? Washington's monument at Baltimore 1 

19. Suppose an incident happened to you this morning, would you 
be reminded of it by seeing the place to-morrow % 

20. My horse was frightened at a certain place and ran out of the 
path. A few days after, in passing the same place, he ran out again ; 
what kind of association was that 1 

21. Did the sight of a person, place, or thing ever cause you to re- 
call any other person, place, or thing ? What kind of association is 
this 7 ?" 

22. How can Geography be said to be " One of the lights of His- 
tory" ? 

3* 



58 MENTAL GROWTH. [Book L 

23. What emotion will I feel to meet one, whom I have injured ? — 
One, whom I have benefited 1 

24. What is the effect of cutting off the head of an animal ? How 
do you know it will kill that animal, whose head has never been cut off 
before ? 

25. Is it wise or foolish to fear ill luck, because we have spilled the 
salt? Why? 

26. What effects do we expect will follow promptness, industry, and 
good conduct in a pupil ? 

27. Make a chain or train of causes and effects on this basis — A 
farmer sows a field with wheat. 

28. John studies because he wishes to learn. (What causes John to 
study? What effect will this, as a cause, produce ? What of this, &c.) 

James studies, because he wishes to win a prize. 
Cassar studies, because he is compelled by the fear of punishment. 
Pompey will not study, because he is too lazy. 
Compare the effects or results produced by John, James, Caesar, and 
Pompey. 



PROPOSITION TENTH. 

1 . The mind, like the body, requires growth or a 
general development of its powers, before attempting 
to gain Abstract and Scientific Knowledge. (See 
Prop. VIII.) 

It is sufficient that the infant grows and learns. At first, 
we do not expect it to use its strength and knowledge even 
to take care of itself; but, as time passes, it begins to do 
both, and afterward continues to make progress in devel- 
opment and in usefulness. Yet the first and main object is 
its development. 

In the same manner, a plant must grow to some size be- 
fore it begins to bear fruit. If it bear too soon, either the 
fruit will be poor, or the plant itself will be injured. Let the 
tree gain some size and be thrifty, and then we may expect 
it both to grow and to bear fruit in proportion to its growth. 
In short, the great law of being is development or growth be- 
fore service or reproduction. 



Prop. 10.] GROWTH IS SYNTHETIC. 59 

2. The Growth or Development of the simple in- 
tellect is gained by a Primary or Preparatory Course. 

3. This Primary or Preparatory Course is called 
the Synthetic, meaning, putting together or making, 
because it pursues the order of Nature or of. Dis- 
covery. 

4. The Primary or Synthetic Course supposes the 
learner to be a discoverer, and that, following the or- 
der of Nature, he begins with things and facts; goes 
from these toward the abstract, by the aid of play- 
things or of models, pictures, maps, diagrams, &c, to 
concrete names, principles, and rules, with their abbre- 
viations, signs, and symbols ; thence and lastly to the 
abstract. 

If we observe the infant, we see that ; first, its appetites 
are aroused, and while satisfying them, new sensations are 
felt ; as tasting, feeling, seeing, hearing ; then it begins to at- 
tend, to perceive, and to remember. 

The infant first distinguishes persons ; as parents, brothers, 
and sisters ; second, actions ; as falling, rocking, dandling ; 
third, qualities ; as sweet or sour, warm or cold, &c. ; fourth, 
particular sounds, as belonging to particular things ; and then 
it begins to use words. 

In teaching the names of objects to children at home, we 
are satisfied, that the child knows the use of a term, when it 
can point to the person or object, to which that term belongs. 
This furnishes a valuable hint to teachers in regard to defi- 
nitions. 

5. With beginners the thing defines its name, and 
the name afterward defines the thing.* 

The child next begins to imagine by attaching names of 
persons to its playthings and by personifying the various ob- 
jects, by which it is surrounded ; then to reason, and lastly, 

* See Systematic Arithmetic, No. 1, p. 4. 



60 KULES FOB THE SYNTHETIC COURSE. [Book I. 

to judge. The desire to exercise these different mental 
powers, is called. Cwiosity or a disposition to investigate. 

" In the pleased infant see its power expand, 
When first the coral fills his little hand ; 
Throned in his mother's lap, it dries each tear, 
As her sweet legend falls upon his ear ; 
Next it assails him in his top's strange hum, 
Breathes in his whistle, echoes in his drum ; 
Each gilded toy, that doting love bestows, 
He longs to break and every spring expose/' 

&. Eules for a Synthetic or Primary Course. 

First Rule. All those beginning a study are to he 
considered as Primaries, and as requiring a Synthetic 
or Primary Course by way of preparation for the 
Higher Course. 

The previous development, which the pupil has gained in 
other studies, will render each succeeding preparatory course 
simpler and shorter than the preceding. 

Second Rule. In a Primary Course, present the 
thing before presenting its term or name, so that 
every term or name may refer to some thing, fact, 
or principle already familiar. 

By pursuing this course, we shall be sure that the terms 
used will be properly and completely understood by the pu- 
pil. It is both strange and unfortunate, that so many con- 
sider words as the definitions of ivords, even when the words 
of the definition are quite as unknown to the pupil, as the 
word defined. The first effort of the mind in using lan- 
guage is to find the names of things. 

Many suppose that the difference between a Primary and 
a Higher work is in the size of the books, without regard to 
the arrangement of the matter, which each contains. Others 
suppose that a book, which omits all the terms or, at least, 
the more difficult ones, is a Primary book. These erroneous 
views, and the practices depending on them, come from over- 



Vrop. lis] SECONDARY OR HIGHER COURSE. 61 

looking the fact, that, although it may be more difficult for a 
child to speak one word than it is to speak another, yet both 
words may be understood with equal ease ; provided that the 
objects named by them are equally objects of sense. 

Thus, a child will learn the use of the terms, elephant, dog, 
hippopotamus, cat, &c, with equal facility ; provided the an- 
imals are before him. He may not be able to speak each 
name with the same ease. But — The use of a word de- 
termines its signification. Hence those, who learn the 
meanings of terms from their uses, are sure to know their 
true meanings or significations. 

Third Rule. The Synthetic Course of any study 
should be completed before entering upon its Analytic 

Course. 

That is, the two should not be mixed in studying the same 
subject. In regard to a given study, the mind is either pri- 
mary or it is developed. If it be primary it needs develop- 
ment, if developed it needs the opportunity to acquire — to 
labor. Again, it may be fully developed in regard to one 
kind of knowledge and yet be entirely undeveloped in re- 
gard to another. In this case the education is said to be un- 
balanced. 



PROPOSITION ELEVENTH. 

1 . The developed intellect requires discipline in the 
use of its powers. This is gained by a Secondary or 
Advanced, or Higher Course. 

SJ. This Secondary or Advanced Course is called, 
the Analytic, meaning taking to pieces or unmaking, 
because it is contrary to the order of Nature or of dis- 
covery. It is sometimes called the Didactic or Dog- 
matic, because it first asserts and afterward proves. 



62 PEIMARY VERSUS ANALYTIC. [Book I. 

3. The Secondary or Analytic Course supposes the 
learner to have passed through the subject as a dis- 
coverer, and while retracing his steps, to be reviewing, 
and re-applying the names, principles, and rules, which 
were gathered in the Primary Course. 

The following comparison shows how completely these 
Primary and Advanced Courses are the complements of each 
other. 

a. The Primary or Preparatory course is Synthetic 
(builds), and is mainly intended for mental growth or devel- 
opment. 

h. The Secondary or Advanced course is Analytic (sepa- 
rates), and is mainly intended for gaining and using knowl- 
edge. 

c. The Synthetic cultivates the mental powers ; the Analytic 
employs those mental powers when cultivated. 

d. In the Synthetic, we teach the terms, principles, and 
rules, as they are derived from things, or from facts, or in the 
concrete. In the Analytic, we first teach the terms, princi- 
ples, and rules themselves, and then how to apply them to 
facts and to things. 

e. Primary or Synthetic Course. 



ART. CONCRETE SCIENCE. 

- C Things, f Models, f Names or f Signs or 

' I Facts. 2 J Pictures, « J Terms, 

' "j Maps, • 1 Abbreviations 

[ Diagrams. [ or Contractions. 



Symbols, 

Principles, 

Rules. 



/. Secondary or Analytic Course. 

ABSTRACT SCIENCE. ART. 

' Suppositions, ( Theories, 



Names or f Signs or 

Terms, ~ J Symbols, 

Abbreviations '1 Rules, 
k or Contractions. [ Principles. 



Diagrams, 4. < Facts, 
Maps, . ( Things. 

Pictures, 
Models. 



Prop. 12.] ART AND SCIENCE. 63 



PROPOSITION TWELFTH. 

1 . Every human employment is both an Art and a 
Science. 

In order to build a house there must be digging, hewing, 
carrying, &c, and also planning and directing. 

2. Art is the name of that part of a pursuit, which 
pertains to the labor, doing, &c. 

3. Those, who do the labor, are artists, laborers, &c. 

4. Science is the name of that part of a pursuit, 
"which plans or directs how to labor. 

5. The different kinds of directing or teaching are 
called Professions ; as Engineering, Architecture, &c. ; 
also those distinguished as the " Learned Professions," 
comprising the Clerical, the Scholastic, the Legal, and 
the Medical Professions. 

6. The Science of a pursuit consists of three parts; 
viz., the Names or Terms, the Principles, and the 
Rules or Formulas. 

7. The Names or Terms and their Definitions con- 
stitute the Nomenclature or Technology of a Sci- 
ence. 

8. In Defining or Explaining Terms, two kinds of 
Definitions are used, called the Real or Essential, and 
the Nominal or Literal. 

9. A Real or Essential Definition explains the use 
of the term. That, which the term names, is also a 
real or essential definition of the term. 

1. Geography is a description of the Earth's surface. 

2. To aspire is to strive for the attainment of an object. 

3. Umbrella, an article to protect from rain or heat. 



64 DEFINITIONS, FIRST RULE. [Book I. 

10. A Nominal or Literal Definition explains the 
meaning of the Term, itself. 

4. Geography* is made of two Greek words, Ge, the earth, 
and graphos, a picture or description. 

5. Aspire is from Ad, to or toward, and spiro, I breathe. 

6. Umbrella means a little shade. 

1 1 . We often speak of nominal and of essential or 
real differences. By nominal, we mean differences in 
names ; by essential or real, differences in values, 
kinds, &c. 

One ton and twenty hundred weight differ nominally but 
not really. All arithmetical reductions are nominal differ- 
ences. 

12. In defining terms, four Eules must be ob- 
served, of which the First and Second relate to the 
simplicity ; the Third to the truth or correctness ; and 
the Fourth to the number of the definitions. 

■ * 

First Rule of Definitions. 

In the Synthetic Course, that, which is named, al- 
ways precedes, and hence should he used as the first 
definition of its own name or term. Afterward a 
verbal definition should be used. 

13. In the Synthetic Method, the definition precedes 
the name or term ; in the Analytic Method, the name 
or term precedes the definition. 

Synthetic Definitions. 

1. A description of the Earth's surface is called Geog- 
raphy. 

2. Making several smaller numbers into one larger num- 
ber is Addition. 

3. That, which we know as a part of our existence, is 
called Conscious Knowledge. 



Peop. 12.] DEFINITIONS, SECOND RULE. 65 

Analytic Definitions. 

4. Geography is a description of the Earth's surface. 

5. Addition is making several smaller numbers into one 
larger number. ' 

6. Conscious Knowledge is that, which we know as a part 
of our existence. 

14. To the beginner, things are more familiar than 
words, and no amount of words can supply the absence 
of things. For words themselves have no meanings, 
unless they refer to our preconceived ideas or concep- 
tions of that, to which the words belong. 

, No idea of an animal, unknown to me, would be conveyed 
to my mind by simply telling me its name, nor by saying it 
had horns, and legs, and tusks, if I had never seen an animal 
with horns, and legs, and tusks, with which to compare it. 

Many insist that, although a learner may not understand a 
definition, yet it is well to commit it, as " food for thought." 
That is, if the pupil memorize the words and afterward 
should reflect upon them, their meanings would be known and 
then, as Mrs. Toodles says, " How convenient to have it on 
hand." Do such persons ever consider the fact, that the 
greater the amount of such memorized stuff, the less probabil- 
ity that the memorizer ever will think ? 

To such an extent is this erroneous idea carried, that many 
practically prefer a term and its definition without an idea ; 
to a term with an idea but without a verbal definition. 

Second Rule of Definitions* 

The Words of the definition should he more fa- 
miliar than the Term defined. 

1. Division is distinguishing the individualities, or aliquot 
portions of an assigned quantity, according to the basic unity 
of a designated numerical representation. 

The above definition is faulty \ because the words of the 
definition are less familiar than the term defined. 



66 DEFINITIONS, THIRD AND FOURTH" RULES. [Book I. 

f 

2. Division is division. 

This definition is defective in simplicity. Being the same 
as the term itself, it can not be more familiar. 

The Second Rule of Definitions, like the First, is based on 
the principle, that the more familiar or known should always 
be used to explain the less familiar or unknown. And since, 
in his Primary Course, the pupil has already become familiar 
with the terms, it follows that in the Secondary Course, when 
defining the unknown terms, we may use the familiar terms 
instead of the things themselves. 

Third Eule of Definitions. 
The Definition must he true. 

15. A Definition may be false in two ways ; either 
by leaving out a part, to which the term belongs ; or 
by including something, which does not belong to the 
term. 

1. U A right angle is an angle formed by an horizontal and 
a perpendicular line." 

This definition is false, because it does not include those 
right angles, neither of whose sides are horizontal. It leaves 
out a part. 

2. "A common fraction is one, in which the integer is 
divided into any number of equal parts." 

This is false, because it includes all fractions, not leaving 
any for decimals. It includes too much. 

Fourth Kule of Definitions. 

The Names or Terms should be defined loth re- 
ally or essentially, and nominally or literally. 

1. Real Definition. The Multiplicand represents the 
quantity to be taken a certain number of times. 

2. Nominal Definition. Multiplicand literally signifies 
multi, many or often ; plic, folded ; — nd, to he ; that is 
(the part) to be folded many (times). 



Prop. 12.] PRINCIPLES — GENERALIZATION. 67 

1.6. A Term, whose Real and Nominal meanings 
are the same, is called a Scientific Term, because in 
modern times great care is taken to have the names or 
terms, used in the Sciences, agree in their essential and 
literal meanings. 

Giving the Real and Nominal Definitions at the same time 
enables the learner to retain the Real definition by its asso- 
ciation with the Nominal. The latter being suggested by the 
term itself. 

3. Photography is the science and art of drawing pictures 
by the aid of light. 

4. Photography literally means by light, photos ; drawing, 
graphos ; or drawing by light. 

17. Oftentimes definitions are rendered obscure 
and even false by attempting to be too brief; as — 

1. "Tense distinguishes the time of the action." 

If this definition be true, then tense means time only. But 
every action happens in its own time. We know whether 
that time is the present, the past, or the future by the verb, 
which is used in the narration. That is — 

2. Tense is the name of that attribute of the verb, which 
shows the relation between the time of the narration and the 
time of the action. 

The best definitions are those, which define the most clearly 
and exactly, and these essentials are never to be sacrificed to 
an erroneous brevity. Proper definitions, no matter what 
their length, can always be understood. 

18. The Principles of a Science are those proposi- 
tions, which state the use of the objects under con- 
sideration ; their divisions or classifications and the 
reasons for each. 

19. The mental operations, involved in perceiving' 
and stating the principles of a science, are called 
Generalization. 



68 BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION. [Book I. 

20. In dividing or classifying, we must take some 
abstract property of the objects to be classified as the 
Basis of classification. (See page 30, §12.) 

Thus, if I have a number of apples, I may divide or clas- 
sify them according to the abstract property, taste ; that is, 
I may take taste as a Basis. This gives the sweet and sour 
kinds or classes. If I take color for the Basis, I have the 
red, yellow, green, &c, classes or kinds. 

21. The kind and number of the classes or divis- 
ions depend on the number of differences or distinc- 
tions in the basis of classification. 

22. These Differences or Distinctions are of two 
kinds ; the Natural or Real, and the Conventional. 

23. Natural or Real Differences exist in the natwe 
of the basis. 

If we divide the human race according to the sex, we find 
our basis, sex, involves two differences, the male and the fe- 
male. Hence, we must have two classes and, of course, two 
kinds. 

24. Conventional Differences of the basis are those 
differences, upon which we must agree. 

Thus, in classifying a number of apples according to differ- 
ences in size, we might easily distinguish the smallest and 
the largest, but might be troubled by the intermediate sizes 
varying so, that each apple would form a class by itself. 
In this case we might agree, that only certain differences 
should be regarded. And since the number* of these differ- 
ences is determined by an agreement, we call them Conven- 
tional Differences. 

25. In choosing a Basis of classification, we are in- 
fluenced by the use, which we intend to make of the 
classes or divisions after they are formed. 



PROr. 12.] RULES OF CLASSIFICATION. 69 

26. In dividing or classifying, two Rules must be 
observed, one of which refers to the Number and the 
other to the Arrangement of the Parts. 

First Rule of Division or Classification. 

The Number of the parts must he the same as the 
number of Heal or Conventional differences in the 
basis, upon which the division or classification is 
made. This also determines the Kinds. 

Thus, in classifying words according to the number of syl- 
lables in each, we may look at the syllables as one or more. 
This gives us two Classes ; Monosyllables and Polysyl- 
lables. Or we may view them as having one, two, three, 
&c, syllables. This gives monosyllables, dissyllables, tri- 
syllables, tetrasyllables, &c, to as many kinds as we have 
different numbers of syllables in our words. 

It is unphilosophical to mix these two classifications, as is 
done when we call words " of four or more syllables, Poly- 
syllables." 

Second Rule of Division or Classification. 

The Divisions or Classes must be so arranged, that 
the First division may be explained without using 
a/ay of the others ; and the Second, without using 
any but the First. In short, arrange the classes so 
that each may be explained without using any of 
those, which have not been explained already. 

27. It is always best to teach the parts or classes in 
that order, in .which we have named them. 

28. Useless kinds or classes should never be made. 

As the kinds of fractions called Compound and Complex, 
also Articles, and Adjectives Pronouns. Such divisions em- 
barrass and confuse the learner without having the least 
possible scientific or practical use. 



70 , PRINCIPLES AND RULES. [Book I. 

29. The Rules are directions for using the Princi- 
ples in the arts or in practice. Hence, a Principle in 
science is a Rule in art. 

In classifying substances with reference to the taste, we 
put all the sour or acid substances into the same class, because 
they agree in taste. 

This class is a result — first, of a process of abstraction, 
by which we view a property or quality, called sour or acid, 
a part from the other properties of the objects and also from 
the objects themselves ; second, of a process of classification, 
by which we group or arrange together all the objects, in 
which we perceive the property, called sour or acid. 

Having formed a class, we next proceed to examine it in 
order to find some fact, which is true of every member in the 
class. This is called Generalization, because the fact or 
truth, which we find, must be true of every individual in the 
class. Suppose that, in examining a class of acids, we find, , 
that each one will change the blue color, derived from vege- 
tables, to a red ; we might then state this fact as generally 
true of acids, and this General Truth is called a Principle. 
Now, since this Principle belongs to that kind, which we call 
Chemical, we call the Statement of the fact, that, Acids 
change vegetable blue to red, sl Principle in the science of 
Chemistry. 

If we wish to change this Principle in the Science to a 
Rule in the Art of Chemistry, we state the Fact in the form 
of a Direction, which is called a Rule ,; thus, u To change a 
vegetable blue to red, apply an acid." 

1. (Principle.) The value of a fraction depends on the 
ratio of the denominator and the numerator. 

2. (Rule.) To multiply the value of a fraction, multiply 
the numerator or divide the denominator. 

3. (Principle.) "Ice, taken in moderate quantity, is a 
tonic, and serves to keep the system in such a healthy condi- 
tion, that food gives it more strength;" therefore, (Rule) 



Prop. 12.] FIFTH EXERCISE. 71 

" Every humane man and every farmer should have an ice- 
house." 

4. {Principle.) " Clean books look much the best," there- 
fore, {Rule) " We should not let our books be torn, nor allow 
the leaves to be turned down at the edge." 

Not only should pupils be required to give clear and in- 
telligible rules for such operations as they perform, but great 
pains should be taken to know, that they understand the 
principles, upon which the rules are founded. 



Fifth Exercise. (See page 23.) 

1 . Recite the Tenth Proposition. 

Should a young colt be required to work enough daily to pay for his 
keeping ? How else can he repay it ? 

2. What do we expect of stalks before they begin to bear grain? 

3. How ought we to regard the growth or development of the mind? 

4. Does a child learn that falling causes pain by being told that it 
will, or by falling ? 

5. Name the mental processes as they first appear in infants. 

6. What does Synthetic mean? — Analytic ? What is the Synthetic 
Course ? — the Analytic ? 

7. How do the Synthetic and Analytic Courses compare with each 
other ? For what is each to be used ? 

8. Is house-building an Analytic or a Synthetic process? — pulling 
a house down ? 

9. Of what does the Secondary or Higher Course consist ? 
Give the First Rule of Definitions. 

10. If you show something to a person, who does not understand 
English, and at the same time speak an English word, what will he 
think the word means ? 

How would you tell a person the .meaning of the word, stone, if the 
person did not understand English ? — hat ? — eye ? — book ? 

1 1 . How do infants learn the meanings of words ? 

12. Could you tell the meaning of an English word, without show- 
ing the thing, which it named, to one who understands English ? 

13. Suppose I say that the Rhinconella resembles the Rhinconeta, 
would it give you an idea of the former ? 

14. Recite the Second and Third Rules for Definitions. 

15. Criticise the following Definitions. 



72 FIFTH EXERCISE. [Book L 

a. Addition is the aggregation of the individualities composing an 
entirety. 

b. Addition is addition. 

c. Addition is making several numbers into a single number. 

d. All horses are quadrupeds. 

e. All quadrupeds are horses. 

f. " Subtraction is taking a less number from a greater" 

g. All kinds of apples are fruit. 
h. All kinds of fruit are apples. 

16. When objects are divided into large, middling-sized, and small, 
what is the basis of classification'? — torrid, temperate, and frigid? 
— long, short 1 — high, low ? 

17. Of what kind is the difference between f and yf ? f an( * |? 
Which would you prefer, to be the President of the United States or 
to be the Chief Executive officer of the United States ! 

18. Give the Eules of Classification. 

If we have four natural differences in a basis, how many classes must 
we have ? 

Suppose on the same basis we agree to have but three classes, are 
our differences natural or conventional I Why \ 

19. If we have arranged the parts of a subject in six cases, may we 
use case fifth to help explain case third ? Why ! — Case first, to ex- 
plain case second ? Why 1 

20. In what order should we name the parts of a subject 3 — study or 
teach the parts ! 



Book!.] GENERAL REMARKS. 73 



GENERAL REMARKS. 

If we divide or classify mankind according to development, 
we have three kinds or classes. 

First Those, who have hands ; — who can work and only 
know how to work according to the orders of others. 

This kind are mere machines. They are valuable only 
because they can work when and as another bids them. If 
you cut off their hands they are utterly spoiled and worth- 
less. A brute, in the same predicament, would still have 
some value ; these have none. Machine men. 

The Second kind are those, who have hands and heads ; 
or those,' who can work, and know why they work, and how 
to work. 

This kind are superior to machines, and to brutes, and 
also to the first kind. They can labor, they have the prac- 
tical skill; they know why they labor and how to labor. 
They understand the science of that, wherein they toil. But 
even these come short of manhood. They fail in the great 
end of human existence. They are simply motor-machine 
men. 

The Third kind are those, who have hands, heads, and 
hearts ; who can work, and know why they work, and how to 
work ; who will and do work " for pulling down" whatever is 
evil and wrong, and " for building up" whatever is good and 
desirable for the human race. 

These, really, are human beings. They toil — the hand is 
trained. They know why and how — the head does its part. 
They seek to promote the welfare of their fellow-men. The 
heart is interested and is right. They are men — " Living 
souls." 

If we would be like them, our knowledge should be thor- 
oughly useful or practical, thoroughly scientific, thoroughly 
social or benevolent, and thoroughly moral or pious. 

Now, the great medium or means, through which knowl- 
• 4 



74 GENERAL REMARKS. [Book I 

edge is obtained, perfected, and used, is language ; not lan- 
guage consisting of mere words, as it is found in spelling- 
books, and dictionaries, but Language used as the medium 
of Knowledge or the vehicle of thoughts, and hence called 
Sentential or Thought- Language. It is language as it is 
used by those, who entertain, persuade, and instruct ; the ora- 
tor, the poet, the historian, the philosopher. The medium 
of communication alike when " we commune with our own 
hearts," and when " in the still, small voice," the Creator holds 
communion with man, the creature. 

The ability to use language orally and in writing for the 
communication of thoughts, affections and desires distinguishes 
the human race from all others. By its aid, man gathers the 
histories of the Past and the Present — garners the wisdom 
of ages ; so that the sciences of centuries become the starting 
point for the student of to-day —preserves the institutions of 
the race — presents new plans and new improvements of old 
plans for the further progress and development of mankind. 
Without it, where are the hopes of human progress — the 
hopes of the Apostle, the Prophet, the Teacher ? With it, 
where are the limits to man's progress in the knowledge of 
his relations to himself, to his fellow-man, and to his Maker ? 
No other science presents such varied inducements to study, 
nor so well rewards its votaries. 

In conclusion, then, to the study of Sentential Language, 
or Language used as the medium of the thoughts, affections, 
feelings, and desires, and made an exact science in that sense, 
in which the mathematics are called the exact sciences, we in- 
vite your careful attention in the following portions of this 
work. In the First Book, we have shown what constitutes 
Our Knowledge, its sources, kinds, and uses ; in the remain- 
ing Books we attempt to show how Language is made to be 
the Medium of this Knowledge. (See Preface.) 



BOOK SECOND. 
THE LOGIC OP LANGUAGE. 



PROPOSITION FIRST. 

1 . When Language is used as the medium of thought, 
and also of receiving and communicating knowledge, 
it is called Sentential Language. 

. The words Sentential and Sentence come from a Latin 
word, signifying thought, opinion, proposition, judgment. 
Hence, Sentential Language means Thought-Language. It 
is so called to distinguish it from language not used to rep- 
resent thoughts; as in spelling-books and dictionaries. 

Thus, if I say, " The tree has roots, trunk, limbs, branches, 
twigs, buds, leaves, blossoms, fruit, seeds, bark, wood, and 
pith," I use the words to make a statement ; hence, this is 
Sentential Language. (See Book L, Prop, ix.) 

But if I say the same words in this order ; Blossoms fruit 
leaves tree limbs wood branches buds pith the trunk roots 
twig seeds bark and has, I do not use the words to express a 
thought ; hence, they do not form a sentence, and, of course, 
are not Sentential or Thought-Language. 

The number of speakers and writers is very much greater 
than the number of those, who have anything worthy of be- 
ing said or written. Now unfortunately for these and also for 
the rest of mankind, their mode of using language begets no 
corresponding skill in thinking ; hence, while that, which they 
speak and write, is Rhetorically and Grammatically correct, 
it has the one Logical fault of containing no thoughts. It is 
only "the sounding brass and the tinkling cymbal." The 



76 THE THREE ANALYSES. [Book II. 

basis of good speaking and of good writing is clear and ac- 
curate thinking concerning things worthy of human thought. 
Such thinking, united to even a moderate practice in the use 
of language to express it, gives us those "Thoughts that 
breathe and words that burn." 



PROPOSITION SECOND. 

1. Sentential Language may be analyzed or con- 
sidered in three ways; First, Logically; Second, 
Rhetorically; and Third, Grammatically. 

The following comparison will aid the learner in obtaining 
a general idea of the nature, uses, and relations of the above- 
named analyses, and thus facilitate his progress. It should 
be read very attentively. (B. I., Prop, ix., §10.) 

In Proposition First, we speak of language as the medium, 
through which we consider or view our thoughts with the 
" mind's eye" ; as a window is the medium, through which 
we view objects with our real eyes. 

As there are three ways, in which we may use a window, 
so there are three ways, in which we may use a sentence. 

First, To view a landscape lying on the other side of the 
window. 

In doing this, we may be so much occupied with the land- 
scape, as to be almost, or even quite unconscious of the win- 
dow, through which we are looking. 

In the same manner, we may use a sentence as a medium, 
through which to consider the thought contained in it, and at 
the same time be almost or even quite unconscious of the 
language, which forms the sentence. This corresponds to 
the Logical Analysis of Sentential Language. 

Second. We may look at both the landscape and the win- 
dow to see their relations to each other ; as first, to see how 
much and what landscape may be seen through the whole 
window ; second, to see what part of the landscape may be 
seen through each pane of the glass ; third, to see what parts 



PROr. 2.] WINDOW AND SENTENCE. 77 

of the landscape, seen through each pane, are seen through 
the different parts of that pane. In this case, we consider 
both the landscape and the window, and each helps to define 
the Parts of the other, and the Relations of these parts. 

So, we may consider the thought and the language to- 
gether; what part of the thought each word or group of 
words serves to express ; and what is the use or office of each 
word in so helping. This corresponds to the Rhetorical 
Analysis. 

Third. We may look at the window itself, almost without 
regard to the landscape beyond it, and consider its position, 
size, and form ; its fitness for the kind of building, in which 
it is placed ; the number of sashes, their forms, the material, 
of which they are made; the kind, shape, color, and size of 
the glass, &c. So, we may look at Sentential Language, re- 
garding the sentence more than we do the thought. We 
may consider the number of sentences, their forms, how con- 
nected, the words composing the sentences and their mean- 
ings, fitness, and properties or accidents. This corresponds 
to the Grammatical Analysis of Sentential Language. 



First Exercise. 

Read and answer these, as you did in the Exercises in Booh First. 

1 . Read the following ; abandon abase apple boat coffee. Are these 
Sentential ? When is Language Sentential or Tftow^fa-Language ? 

Apply the questions of the first paragraph to each of these ;— 

2. "Knowledge is power." 

3. Around men trees houses plant their some. 

4. "A thing of beauty is a joy for ever/' 

5. Some men plant trees around their houses. 

6. Forget remember to is duty our it where fault it our to is. 

7. Where it is our duty to remember, it is our fault to forget. 

8. Repeat Propositions First and Second. 

9. What is meant by the term, medium, in Proposition First ? 

10. What does Sentential mean ? — Analyzed ? 

11. Are the three comparisons between a sentence and a window by 
Besemblance or by Contrast ? 



78 LOGICAL ANALYSIS. [Book II. 



PROPOSITION THIRD. 

1, In the Logical Analysis of Sentential Language, 
we mainly consider the Thought, Statement, &c, using 
the Language as the Medium, through which we view 
them. 

The terms Logic and Logical, signify the reason, use, ar- 
rangement, or the essential part of a thing. This is called 
the Logical Analysis, because in it we look at that, which the 
language contains, when it contains anything. 

It is sometimes very difficult to consider Knowledge sepa- 
rate from the Language, by which it is expressed. Yet this 
is done in attempting to correct li Incorrect expressions,", or 
" False syntax." In such cases, we say, " The expression 
should be," &c, meaning, that although we understand what 
the expression means, yet a better or more correct form might 
be used, which would exactly express the thought. 

When we use either the microscope or the telescope, it is 
mainly to see objects, which would otherwise be too mi- 
nute, or else too distant to be seen by the naked eye. We 
do not use these instruments for the sake of using them. 
So, we should use language, not for the sake of using it, but 
to express thoughts which must otherwise remain hidden, and, 
of course, unknown. 

When we utter language without knowing its meaning, we 
are simply making a noise. How many noisy ones ! 

When we know, that what we utter does contain a thought, 
and know what the thought itself is, we talk. How few 
talkers ! 

In written language, we find a corresponding distinction ; 
but instead of calling the two kinds, noise and talk, we call 
them nonsense and sense. 



Prop. 4.] FIRST AND SECOND PARST. 79 



PROPOSITION FOURTH. 

1* Every Thought has two and some have three 
Principal or Essential Parts, called the First, Second, 
and Third Parts. 

2. The First Part is that, which produces, causes, 
or does something, or maintains some State of Exist- 
ence. This .is called The Producer, Cause, Doer, 
Maintainer, &c. For convenience let it be represented 
by the abstract character X. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Horses run. 

2. Acids are sour substances. 
B. Horses eat grass. 

4. Grass is eaten by horses. 

In the first, third, and fourth examples, horses are the Doers — do 
something — and hence, are the First Parts of the thoughts or X. 

In the second example, Acids and sour substances are the same Part 
That is, the First Part or X appears twice. Statements of this kind 
may be regarded as Verbal Equations or Equivaleqfa. 

3. The Second Part is the Act, or State of Exist- 
ence. For convenience let it be represented by Y. 

5. Horses run. 

6. Quadrupeds are four-footed animals. . 

7. Horses eat grass. 

8. Grass is eaten by horses. 

In the fifth, seventh, and eighth examples, run, eat, and is eaten, are 
ihe Second Parts or Y, which the horses, the First Part or X, do. 

In the sixth example, are is the State of Existence or Y, of the. 
wice named First Part or X. 

Verbal equations may sometimes be read either way without altering 
&e sense ; as, acids are sour substances, or sour substances are acids. 

9. The fine, black horse easily drew the elegant carriage 
up the hill. 



80 THIRD PART. [Book' II. 

4. In the Logical Analysis, not only is the imme- 
diate act itself to be regarded as the Second Part, but 
also all those parts, which tell how, why, when, where, 
&c., are to be considered as parts of it. . 

If I say, " John struck the horse with a whip/' I do not 
name the whole act by the simple word struck, but by struck 
with a whip, which, when thus used, are to be regarded as a 
single word, struck- with- a-whip. This looks oddly, because 
it is not usually so written, but it sounds familiar, because it 
is usually so spoken. The compound word, nevertheless, is 
composed of the simples, not ever the less. It both looks and 
sounds familiar, 

10. James writes neatly with a good steel pen. 
James X, the rest is Y. 

11. They were bound with strong cords to large trees in a 
dark forest in an unknown country. 

They X, the rest is represented by Y. 

5. The Third Part receives the Act, and hence, it 
is called the Receiver. For convenience let it be rep- 
resented by Z. 

12. Waste begets poverty. 

13. The wind strikes the sails. 

14. Horses eat grass. 

15. Grass is eaten by horses. 

In these examples, poverty, sails, and grass receive the acts, begets, 
strikes, eat, and is eaten ; and hence, are the Third Parts, the Receiv- 
ers or Z. 

m 

1 6. John put the money into his pocket. 

In this example, the money receives the Act, expressed by 
put. Some beginners think, that pocket is the Receiver, be- 
cause it receives the money. 

Money names the Receiver of the action, put, and hence, it is Z; 
pocket names that, which receives the money, not the Receiver of the 
action, hence, it is not Z. 



Prop. 4.] FORMULAS. 81 

6. The Expressions, XY, XYZ, ZYX, are 

called Formulas or Little Forms. 

EXAMPLES IN LOGICAL ANALYSIS. 

17. Man lives. 

Logical Analysis ; Man is the Maintainer or X; and lives is the State 
of Existence maintained or Y. Hence, we have the Formula X Y". 

18. " Knowledge is power." 

Logical Analysis ; Knowledge is the First Maintainer or X; is is the 
State of Existence or Y; and power is the Second Maintainer or X. 
Hence, we have the Formula XYor XYX, 

Knowledge and power name the same part. This is always the case 
in definitions. 

19. "Reading makes the intelligent man." 

Logical Analysis ; Reading is the Producer or X; makes is the Act 
or Y; and the intelligent man is the Receiver or Z. This gives the For- 
mula XYZ. 

20. The intelligent man is made by reading. 

Logical Analysis ; The intelligent man is the Receiver or Z; is made 
is the Act or Y; and by reading is the Actor or X. This gives the For- 
mula ZYX 

Although the nineteenth and twentieth examples differ in 
arrangement, yet, as they are supposed to contain the same 
thought, the Logical Analysis remains the same, except in 
arrangement. 

21. John sleeps. "Eternal vigilance is the price of lib- 
erty." 

22. Mary walks. Birds fly. " Writing makes the accu- 
rate man." 

23. Diligent students love study. Idleness bringeth poverty. 

24. Study is loved by diligent students. I am Joseph. 

25. Good manners are corrupted by evil communications. 

26. "My name is Norval. On the Grampian hills my 
father feeds his flock.' ' 

27. It is I. It is he. It is they. It is we. XTX. 

28. It is pleasant to hear thy voice. 

4* 



82 SIMPLE FORMS. [Book II. 



PROPOSITION FIFTH. 

1. Thoughts, statements, &c, are either Simple or 
Compound. 

2. A Simple statement or thought has only one in- 
dividual, class, kind, or act, in its First, Second, or 
Third Parts. 

3. There are only two kinds of Simple Thoughts. 
The First kind are those having but Two Parts, and 
are represented by the Formula X Y. The Second 
kind are those having Three Parts, and are represented 
by the Formulas XYZ and Z YX. 

4. While there are only two kinds of Simple 
Thoughts, there are three kinds of Simple Formulas. 

SIMPLE FORMULAS. 
First Formula, XT. I am. 

Translation — X, 2"; Y, am. 
Second Formula, X YZ. Men seek wealth. 

Translation — X, Men ; Y, seek ; Z, wealth. 
Third Formula, Z YX. Wealth is sought by men. 

Translation — Z, Wealth ; Y, is sought ; X, by men. 

5. Sometimes a part of a thought is not mentioned, 
and yet we are made aware of its existence by what is 
stated. In such cases, we write a small character to 
represent the part omitted. 

1. Horses eat. Second Simple Formula, X Yz. 

Translation. X, Horses; Y y eat; z, Eeceiver not expressed. 
It is certain, that, if the horses do eat, they must eat something. 

2. The men were seen in the boat. Z Yx. 



Pkop. 5.] SIMPLE AND MODIFIED FORMS. 83 

6. When the same Logical Part is named more than 
once, we may refer both names to the same abstract 
character, or else we may repeat the character. ' The 
different forms, thus produced, are distinguished as the 
Simple and the Modified Forms. They only differ in 
form, not in essence. 

FIRST SIMPLE POBMULA. 

Simple Form, XY. 3. I am. 
Modified Form, X YX. 4. I am Joseph. 

Translation — X, / ; Y, am ; X, Joseph. 

The fourth example may be represented by XY, as well as by XYX 

SECOND SIMPLE FORMULA. 
Simple Form, X YZ. 5. I knew James. 

Translation — X, 2"; Y, knew ; Z, James. 
FlRST*MODIFIED FORM, XX YZ. 

6. I, John, knew James. 

Translation — X, J/'X, John; Y, knew ; Z, James. 

Second Modified Form, X YZ Z. 

7. I knew James, the boy. 

Translation — 1L, I ; Y, knew; Z, James ; Z, the boy. 

THIRD SIMPLE FORMULA. 

Sihple Form, Z YX. 8. Mary was loved by Martha. 
Translation — Z, Mary ; Y, was loved ; X, by Martha. 

First Modified Form, Z ZYX. 

9. Mary, the sister, was loved by Martha. 

Translation — Z, Mary ; Z, the sister ; Y, was loved ; X, by Martha. 
Second Modified Form, Z YXX. 

10. Mary was loved by Martha, the sister. 

Translation — Z, Mary ; Y, was loved ; X, by Martha ; X, the sister. 

11. Horses run. First Simple Formula, X Y. 
Translation — X, Horses ; Y } run. 



84 SIMPLE THOUGHTS. [Book II. 

12. The sun shines brightly. 

13. The eagle soars toward heaven. 

14. The girls fed the poor woman. Second Simple For- 
mula, XYZ. 

Translation — X, The girls ; Y, fed ; Z, the poor woman. 

15. The stars fill the immensity of space. 

1 6. Writing makes the accurate man. 

17. Columbus discovered St. Salvador in 1492. (Yin 
italics.) 

18. The poor woman was fed by the girls. Third Simple 
Formula, Z Y X. 

Translation — Z f The poor woman ; Y, was fed ; X } by the girls. 

19. The immensity of space is filled by the stars. 

20. All good men will obey wholesome laws very willingly, 

21. Farmers sow grain in the spring. 

22. Can gold gain friendship ? XYZ. 
Translation — X y Gold ; Y, can gain ; Z, friendship. 

23. " Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades ?" 

24. Four-footed animals are quadrupeds. XY, or its 
Modified Form, X YX. 

Translation — X } Four-footed animals ; Y, are ; X } quadrupeds. 

25. Acids are sour substances. 

26. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge." 

27. Are acids sour substances? 

28. Art thou James ? I am James. 

29. May I eat the bread? Eat thou the bread. Thou 
mayest eat the bread. Dost thou eat the bread ? Thou art 
eating the bread. X Y Z. 

30. We, the people of the United States, do hereby ordain 
the following Constitution. XYZ ox XX YZ. 

31. He shall be called John. 

32. They named him, John. 

33. Farmers mow. X Yz. 

34. We read. 

35. He was murdered in the woods. Z Y%. 

36. It was not told to him. 



Prop. 5.] CONNECTED COMPOUND THOUGHTS. 85 

7. A Compound Thought contains two or more sim- 
ple thoughts united. Its Formula is called a Compound 
Formula, 

8. There are two kinds of Compound Thoughts ; 
namely, the Connected Compound and the Mixed Com- 
pound. 

9. A Connected Compound Thought is one, whose 
simples are joined by a Connective. Its Formula is 
called a Connected Compound Formula; the connective 
being represented by the sign plus + , meaning joined 
or added. 

Thus, John plays ; X Yz. James sleeps ; X Y. 

Put a connective between these, and we have ; John plays 
and James sleeps. This gives the Connected compound for- 
mula, XYz + XY 

37. The sun shines brightly and the birds sing gayly. Con- 
nected compound formula, X Y + X Yz. 

38. He awoke, but he did not arise. Connected formula, 
XY+ XY 

39. The child sleeps because the mother sings. 

40. "If thou be wise, thou shalt be wise for thyself." 
Connected formula, X Y + X Y. 

Translation — X, Thou wise ; Y, shalt be for thyself ; + , if; X, 
thou wise ; Y, be. 

41. You will like the Formulas, because they are simple. 

10. A Mixed Compound Thought has another 
thought for one of its Logical Parts. Its Formula is 
called a Mixed Compound Formula. 

The Part of a formula, representing another thought, is 

written over the formula of the thought, which it represents ; 

z 
thus, XY, r—-, means, that Z represents a thought, which is 

represented by X Y In such instances we sometimes say, 
that Z is equal feXT,or^= XY. 



86 MIXED COMPOUND THOUGHTS. [Book II. 

• 11. Mixed Compound Statements at first may be 
represented by Simple Formulas, and then these may 
be still farther analyzed into the Mixed Formulas. 

12. For the sake of brevity, we may omit the term, 
Compound, and only say Connected Formula or Mixed 
Formula ; since both of these expressions imply a Com- 
pound Formula. 

42. Whatsoever thing God doeth abideth. X Y or 
X 



Y. 



XYZ 

This may be represented by the Simple Formula, X Y. 
Translated — X, Whatsoever thing God doeth; Y, abideth. But X 
represents the statement ; X, God ; Y, doeth ; Z, whatsoever thing. 
In writing this Formula, we signify, that X is equal to X YZ, by 

writing it in the form of a fraction, - Y. 

JL Y Zi 

43. The child sleeps, while the mother sings. X Y or 

^Y+XY 

This statement may be represented by X Y, a simple formula, in 
which X = the child ; and Y = sleeps while the mother sings. But Y 
contains sleeps, Y ; while, + ; the mother, X ; sings, Y ; and hence, we 

Y 
have the Mixed Formula, X Y , x * 

44. I see them run. That is, to run. Formula, XYZ. 
Translation — X, I; Y, see; Z, them (to) run. But Z = them, X; 

to run, Y ; and hence, we have the Mixed Formula, X Yj=y.' 

X 

45. The sun, arising, enlightened the cavern. =— . Y Z. 

46. We drove the horses into a field, surrounded by a 
high fence. X Y Z. 

Translation — X, We ; Y, drove into a field, surrounded by a high 
jence ; Z, the horses. But Y=Y, drove into a field; +, understood ; 
Y, surrounded ; X, by a high fence ; hence, we have the Mixed For- 

Y 
aiula, X yA-YX Z ' 

47. " J Tis sweet to hear the honest watch-dog's bark 
Bay deep-mouthed welcome, as we draw near home." 



Prop. 6.] LOGIC OF ALL LANGUAGES. 87 



PROPOSITION SIXTH. 

1 . The Logical Analysis of Sentential Language is 
the same in all languages ; hence, when once learned 
and applied to a single language, it is equally easy to 
apply it to all the others. 

A moment's reflection will show us the truth of this propo- 
sition, especially if we consider; first, that the intellectual 
differences in different individuals are in quantity rather than 
in quality ; and second, that any number of persons, when 
influenced by the same feelings, will experience the same 
mental actions, whether they use the same or different lan- 
guages to express those feelings. Hence, we conclude, that 
the Logic of all languages is the same, and that those per- 
sons, who understand the nature, the origin, and the modes 
of acquiring knowledge, and also the Logic of Language, 
have the key to all human languages, and, of course, to all 
the stores of knowledge, which those languages contain. 



Reasons for Using the Formulas. 

First. They may be easily and readily applied ; the 
more so, because the abstracts, X, Y, and Z, are em- 
ployed, as in mathematics. 

Second. Because they enable any one, familiar with 
them, to analyze as rapidly as one reads or speaks. 

A Musician not only enjoys the music, but no small part 
of the enjoyment arises from his ability to trace the pro- 
gression of the melody, and the fitness of the harmony. 
At the same time he may enjoy the rendering ; the harmony 
of the words and the sentiments, which they contain. So, the 



88 USING FORMULAS. [Book IL 

person, skilled in the construction of Sentential Language, en- 
joys the thought, because he most easily detects it, and at the 
same time is pleased with the fitness of the words and the 
tones of the speaker, or the ready adaptation shown by the 
writer. His enjoyment is increased by his skill in language 
instead of being lessened, as some foolishly suppose, by do- 
ing all these things at once. 

" We live in thoughts, not years." 

Third. Because they furnish a language, whose 
terms , having no nominal meanings, never need be the 
subjects of debate. 

For example ; Horses run. No matter how persons do 
differ as to whether Horses should be called the Producer, or 
the Actor, or the Doer ; since these are only Nominal differ- 
ences (page 64), they can agree to let X represent any one, 
or all of the disputed terms, and thus obtain a common 
term, which having no signification of its own, can be used 
by all. 

Fourth. Because they are equally applicable to all 
languages. 



BOOK THIRD. 
THE RHETORIC OP SENTENTIAL LANGUAGE. 



PROPOSITION FIRST. 

1. In the Rhetorical Analysis of Sentential Lan- 
guage, we consider the Language with reference to 
the Thought ^ which it presents; First; in Sentences; 
Second, the Offices of words in forming, sentences ; 
Third, the Characters used to assist words in forming 
sentences ; Fourth, the Classification of words ; and 
Fifth, Figurative Language. 

We must observe very carefully the difference between 
the Logical and the Rhetorical Analyses. In the former, we 
mainly consider the Thought ; in the latter, we consider the 
Language as the representative of the thought ; hence, in 
the Rhetorical Analysis both must be kept carefully in view. 

In the Logical Analysis, the Language is only a medium, 
through which we view the thought ; in the Rhetorical, each 
is used to help us in viewing the other. 

From what has been said above, we see that the Logical 
and the Rhetorical Analyses will necessarily have a strong 
resemblance to each other in certain parts. The former is 
the gem — the kernel; the latter is the casket — the husk. 
Too often, to the neglect of the former, we content ourselves 
with the latter. While knowledge and the power to express 
it, in fitting language, are an invaluable possession, knowl- 
edge without language is only valuable to its possessor; 
while language, without knowledge, is merely noise. Said an 



90 FORMATION OF SENTENCES. [Book HI. 

eminent English statesman, " In expressing my thoughts, I 
am never troubled for a word, but my friend, Mr. Burke, 
% never troubled for the word." 



PKOPOSITION SECOND. 

1. A Sentence is the language of a statement, 
thought, proposition, &c. 

The word, sentence, literally signifies thought, opinion, &c, 
and hence, it is sometimes used to mean the thought, itself; 
and sometimes to mean only the language, which contains the 
thought. When used in Book Second, it is used in the for- 
mer ; when in Book Third, in the latter sense. 

In referring to the thought or meaning of a sentence, we 
use the terms, idea, conception, notion, imagination, state- 
ment, sentiment, proposition, feeling, emotion, passion, &c; 
but, when we refer to the language of a sentence, we use the 
terms, text, expression, arrangement, form of words, idiom, 
idiomatic form, peculiar form, &c. 

2. Sentences may be classified in three ways ; First, 
according to Formation; Second, according to Form; 
and Third, according to Use. 



PROPOSITION THIRD. 

1. According to Formation, sentences are either 
Simple, or Compound. 

2. A Simple Sentence is the Language containing 
t Simple Thought. 

S. Those Simple sentences, which agree with the 
irst three Simple Formulas, are said to have the Gen- 
eral Form ; those, which agree with the Modified For- 
mulas, are said to have the Definitive Form. 



Prop. 3.] GENERAL AND DEFINITIVE FORMS. - 91 

FIRST SIMPLE FORMULA. 

General Form, X Y. John laughs. 

Translation — X, John ; Y, laughs. 
Definitive Form, X TX. The boy was Thomas. 

Translation — X, The boy ; Y, was ; X, Thomas. 

SECOND SIMPLE FORMULA. 

General Form, XT Z. John fed the horse. 
Translation — X, John ; Y, fed ; Z, the horse. 

First Definitive Form, XX Y Z. 
John, the servant, fed the horse. 
Translation — X, John ; X, the servant ; Y, fed ; Z, the horse. 

Second Definitive Form, X YZ Z, 
They named the place, Plymouth. 
Translation — X, They ; Y, named ; Z, the place ; Z, Plymouth, 

THIRD SIMPLE FORMULA. 

General Form, Z YX. The horse was fed by John. 

Translation — Z, The horse ; Y, was fed ; X, by John. 

First Definitive Form, ZYXX. 
The horse was fed by John, the servant. 
Translation — Z, The horse ; Y, was fed ; X, by John ; X, the ser- 
vant. 

Second Definitive Form, ZYZX. 
The place was named Plymouth by them. 
Translation — Z, The place ; Y, was named ; Z, Plymouth ; X, by 
them. 

4. Every sentence must be formed either with direct 
reference to the Producer, or else to the Receiver of 
the thought. No sentence can be formed from or with 
reference to the Second Part or Y. 

All sentences, in the First and Second Formulas, are 
formed from or with reference to the First Part, or X; and 
those, in the Third Formula, from the Third Part or Z; 



92 ILLOGICAL FORMS. [Book III. 

while no sentence is formed from the Second Part or Y; 
nor can this ever be done except it be illogical. As soon as 
we begin to form a sentence from the Second Part or Act, 
it must become either a First or a Third Part — Xor Z — 
which is impossible, unless we alter the thought, which we 
at first intended to express. 

45. Attempts are often made to form sentences from 
a part of the Act or Second Part. But this is always 
illogical. Take the following example. 

" They proceeded with the trial." 

In this example, we have the First Formula, X Y. That 
is, X, they ; Y, proceeded with the trial. Now here is no Third 
Part or Z, nor can there be one ; because the Act, proceeded, 
can not have a receiver, and yet we often see the form, " The 
trial was proceeded with" which contains nothing but Y, and 
hence, is not a sentence. 

If the expression had been, "They continued the trial," 
then we would have the Second Formula, X YZ, which may 
very properly be changed into the Third Formula, Z YX, 
when we wish to express the same thought in a sentence 
formed from or with reference to the Third Part, thus — 
" The trial was continued." 

6. When, in analyzing sentences, we find an attempt 
to construct a sentence with reference to its Act, or to 
any part of its Act, we go no farther than to declare 
it to be illogical; except it be to substitute another 
Act, which can have a Receiver after it. 

"I was applied to." Illogical; because J is neither a 
First, nor a Third Part — is neither Xnor Z. If you wish 
to form a sentence from I, if is better to use some other Act ; 
as, I was requested, or desired, or asked, or besought, &c. ; 
but if you insist on using applied, then you must say, "They 
or Somebody applied to me." 

Caution. It must not be supposed that the name of that 
part, from which the sentence is formed, must always be 



Prop. 4.] FORMS OF THE FORMULAS. 93 

placed first in the sentence, because it is first in the formula. 
A" is placed first in the First and Second Formulas, and Z in 
the Third, only to signify that the sentence is formed from, 
or with reference to X in the First and Second, and with 
reference to Z in the Third. 

7. A change of place without a change in the Forms 
of the words, does not alter the Formula. 

Simple Forms. 

First Formula, X Y. 

1. John laughs. 

2. John does laugh. 

3. Does John laugh ? 

4. John is laughing. 

5. Is John laughing 1 

Second Formula, X Y Z. Third Formula, Z Y X. 

1 . John fed the horse. 

2. John did feed the horse. 

3. Did John feed the horse ? 

4. John was feeding the horse. 1. The horse was fed by John. 

5. Was John feeding the horse % 2. Was the horse fed by John ? 

Transpositions of words may be made in the Definitive For- 
mulas, as in the Simple, without affecting their nature. 



PROPOSITION FOURTH. 

1 . A Compound sentence is the language containing 
a Compound thought ; or, it is two or more Simple 
sentences united. 

2. The Simples, forming a Compound sentence, are 
called its Clauses. 

3. There are two kinds of Compound sentences ; 
the Connected Compound, and the Mixed Compound, 
or simply Connected and Mixed sentences. 



94 CONNECTED COMPOUND SENTENCES. [Book III. 

41. A Connected Compound sentence is one, in which 
the union of the Simples is shown by a word called, a 
Connective. 

1. Thomas fed the poor man arid Jane comforted the poor 
woman. 

First Mode of Analysis ; We have two simple sentences united by 
the Connective, and ; hence, they form a Connected compound sentence. 
The first Clause is, Thomas fed the poor man. Its formula is, X Y Z; 
the and is plus, -|-. The second Clause is, Jane comforted the poor 
woman. Its formula is, X Y Z. The Connected compound formula is, 
XYZ+XYZ. 

Translated — X, Thomas; Y, fed; Z } the poor man; +, and; X, 
Jane ; Y, comforted ; Z, the poor woman. 

Second Mode of Analysis ; This is a Connected sentence, having the 
Connected formula, X Y Z + XYZ. 

Translated — X y Thomas; &c, as above. 

2. We should not value our own exertions, if we can save 
another from evil. 

3. He acknowledged that he had done wrong. 

4. "As he was one day passing into the house, he was ac- 
costed by a very little boy." 

Formula, + XTz, Z TX, should be rendered, Z TX + 
XTz. 

Translated — Z } he ; Y, was accosted ; X, by a very little boy ; +, 
as ; &c. 

5. " While the clouds were gathering, the pious man saw 
the exposed condition of his neighbor's hay." 

Formulas as quoted, + X T, XTZ; should fye rendered, 
XYZ + XT. (See example 4.) 

6. "If thou be wise, thou shalt be wise for thyself; but, 
if thou scornest, thou alone shalt bear it." Formula, + X T, 
XT; + ? + X Tz, XTZ, as quoted ; but, if we transpose 
the parts, we will have ; Thou shalt be wise for thyself, if 
thou be wise ; but thou alone shalt bear it, if thou scornest. 
Formula, XT + XT; + XTZ + XTz. Translate it 
as transposed. 

7. "Isabella was faithful to her promise. She fitted out 



Prop. 4.J MIXED COMPOUND SENTENCES. 95 

two light-coasting vessels, and Columbus, by the aid of his 
friends, equipped a third/' XY XYZ+ X YZ. 

8. " The crickets sing, and man's o'erlabored sense repairs 
itself by rest." 

9. Farmers raise grain, and the grain merchants sell it. 

5. A Mixed Compound sentence is one having a 
sentence for one of its Logical parts. The union is 
shown by a change of form in one of its clauses. 
Mixed sentences are sometimes called Complex sen- 
tences. 

Thus, if we join the simple sentence, / see, to they run, 
by a connector, we have a Connected Compound sentence ; 
as, " I see if they run," " I see that they run," " I see when 
they run," &c. ; but, if we join them by changing the Form 
of They run, to them (to) run, we have the Mixed Com- 

pound sentence, " I see them (to) run." X 7™ 

10. For children to play in the pure air is vivifying. 
Formula, X Y= —-^- T. 

Translation —r X, For children to play in the pure air ; Y, is vivi- 
fying. 
But X is equivalent to +17; +, For ; *-X", children ; Y, to pla*" 

in the pure air. This gives the Mixed formula, , r Y. (Book IL 

Prop, v., §11.) 

6. When a sentence is used in the place of X, in tin 
First and Second Formula, or of Z, in the Third, wt 
usually place the sentence after the Act, or Second 
Part, and supply its place before the Act with thi 
word, It. 

Thus, in the last example, we have, It is vivifying for 
children to play in the pure air. This changes our formuh 
from the General to the Definitive Form; from XYtd 
X YX. (Prop. III. First S. F.) 

Translation — X, It ; Y, is vivifying ; X, for children to play in th« 
pure air. But the second X is equivalent to +XY; +, for ; X, 



96 MIXED SENTENCES. [Book III. 

children ; Y, to play in the pure air ; and we have a Mixed sentence, 
represented by the Mixed Formula, X Y y ' 

Ik I saw them (to) run. Second Simple Formula, XYZ. 

Translation — X, I', Y, saw; Z, them (to) run. But Z=XY, 
and we have, X Y^-^. 

12. He was said to have come by somebody. Formula, ' 

ZYX=^TX. 

Translation — Z, He to have come ; Y, was said ; X } by somebody. 
But Z= XY. X } He ; Y, to have come ; and we have the Mixed 

Formula, jj^^ 

13. " Several Japan ports have been opened to our com- 
merce, and other privileges have been granted." Z Yx -f 
ZYx. 

14. "Nathan said unto David, 'Thou art the man.'" 

Y Y Z ' 

Ai J7I 

What did Nathan say unto David ? The answer to this question 
is Z in the Second Formula ; but this Z = X, Thou ; Y, art ; X, the 
man. 

15. "Dust thou art, to dust returnest was not spoken 
of the soul. ,> That is, Dust thou art and to dust thou re- 
turnest, &e. Z Yx. 

This contains the Mixed Formula, -— — ~ Y. 

Ji. J. X (— |— } Ji. J: 

16. The dog, being rabid, was shot by his master. Z YX. 
Translation — Z, The dog, being rabid ; Y, was shot ; X y by his 

master. Now, Z= XY Then, X t The dog rabid ; Y, being ; and 

we have the Mixed Formula, — -YX. 

17. I heard them singing the songs. 

18. Bid the messenger (to) fly with all speed. 

19. " Let him, that thinketh he standeth, (to) take heed, 
lest he fall." 

20. Make them obey the laws. 

21. I hear their glad songs, echoing through the woods. 

Ji. J. Z> = X J. -^ «. 



Fjsop. 5.] INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. 97 



PROPOSITION FIFTH. 

1. According to Form, sentences are either Inde- 
pendent, or Dependent. 

2. An Independent sentence neither modifies the 
meaning of another sentence, nor shows its own con- 
nection to another by its form. (Prop. iv. Second.) 
Hence — 

First. Every Simple sentence is Independent. 

1. Jamestown was settled by the English in 1607. Z TX. 

2. " The mountains look on Marathon." X T. 

3. " The cedars wave o'er Lebanon." X Y. 

Second. Every Compound sentence, taken as a whole, 
is Independent. 

4. It is said, that still water runs deep. Z T X v - 

5. " The cedars wave o'er Lebanon, but Judah's statelier 
maids are gone." 

6. I heard them recite the lessons. 

Third. Every Connected Compound sentence, has 
always one Independent clause ; and sometimes all of 
its clauses are Independent. 

7. I shall go to town, if it does not rain. 

8. " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

9. " The Mountains look on Marathon, and Marathon looks 
on the sea." 

j la the ninth example, both of the clauses are Independent. 

Fourth. Every Mixed Compound sentence has at 
least one Independent clause. 

10. I saw them run ; or, I saw them running. 

11. He demanded guides to show him the way. 

5 



98 DEPENDENT SENTENCES — SUBJECTIVE. [Book HI. 

12. I saw the green buds in the garden growing. 

3. A Dependent sentence is one, which is used as 
one of the Logical Parts in a Mixed Compound sen- 
tence ; or, to modify the meaning of another sentence ; 
or, of some word in it. Hence — 

First. Every Mixed Compound sentence, has at 
least one Dependent clause. 

13. I saw them run ; or, I saw them running. 

14. I shall go to town, if it does not rain. 

15. I heard, that he had gone to sea. 

16. I received the note, which you sent. 

17. He is said to have come by good authority. 

Second. Clauses in Connected Compound sentences 
are sometimes Dependent. 

18. He came for me to go with him. 

4L Dependent sentences are of three kinds ; namely, 
the Subjective, the Objective, and the Connected. 

5. A Subjective Dependent is a sentence, which 
may be represented by X in the First and Second For- 
mulas ; or, by Z in the Third. 

19. He is said to have come. —^Yx (Xnot expressed). 

20. Whatever is made by God is perfectly made. 
Yx (x, by him). 



ZYX 

21. To love our neighbors as we love ourselves is a divine 

P"****- +xYZ X +XYZ YX - 

22. "Dust thou art, to dust returnest was not spoken of 

tLeSOul " XYX+*Y Yx - 

23. " He, that increaseth knowledge, increaseth sorrow. 

6. In the English Language, Subjective Dependent 
sentences are often placed after the Act, or Second 



Prop. 5.] DEPENDENT SENTENCES — OBJECTIVE. 99 

Part y and the place of the sentence supplied by the 
word "It" Instances of this kind are often found, in 
which whole chapters are thus represented by It; as 
in Isaiah, Chapter 36. 

24. To study delights me; XYZ. It delights me to 
study; XYZX. 

25. To strive with the greatest ardor not to pass life in 
degradation, behooves all men. It behooves all men to 
strive, &c. 

26. "It is as sport to a fool to do mischief." 

27. "It is good and comely for one to eat and to drink, and 
to enjoy the good of all his labor, that he taketh under the 
sun all the days of his life, which God giveth him." 

It represents all of the twenty-seventh example, except is. 

28. "It appeared that the plaintiff was returning from 
church in company with his family on the evening in ques- 
tion ; that the stone was about two feet long, one foot high, 
and one foot wide, and stood back about a foot from the curb- 
stone ; that the night was dark and cloudy ; and the plaintiff 
accidentally tripped over the said stone and received such 
severe injuries that he has been unable to transact any busi- 
ness since that time, and is incapacitated from transacting 
business for life." 

It represents all of the twenty-eighth example, except appeared. 

7. An Objective Dependent is a sentence, which 
may be represented by Z in the Second, X in the Third, 
or is a part of Y in any of the formulas. 

29. You saw me give it. X Y xY 7 * 

30. We heard him speak the oration. X Y " ^ . 

X Y Z 

31. "Nathan said unto David, < Thou art the many 

A XYX 

32. Tell me not in mournful numbers, "life is but an empty 
dream." 



100 DEPENDENT SENTENCES — CONNECTED. [Book HI. 

33. He was reprieved by the influence, exerted in his be- 
half. ZY~. 

Translated — Z, He ; Y, was reprieved ; X, by the influence exerted 
in his behalf. In which we have, X, by the influence ; Y } exerted in 
his behalf. 

8. A Connected Dependent sentence is one, which 
either in form, or in signification depends on another 
sentence, to which it is joined by a connective. 

34. He came for me to go with him. XY+ IK 

35. I gave him what he wanted. 

36. I saw the farm, which you bought. 

37. "I knew by the smoke, that so gracefully curled, 
around the green elms, that a cottage was near.' 9 

38. You knew, that she was deceived. 

39. We shall know if they come. 

40. It is good for any one to take exercise in the open 
air. (See §6.) 



PROPOSITION SIXTH. 

1. According to Use, sentences are Leading or 
Primary, and Sub-joined. 

2. This classification is mainly to be used in Read- 
ing, and refers to language considered either in Periods, 
or in important parts of Periods. 

S. A Leading or Primary sentence is one, which 
contains the leading or principal statement ; hence, 
simple sentences are always Primary. 

1. General Washington commanded the American forces 
during the War of the Revolution. 

2. The rising sun dispels the fogs, and brings forth the 
golden day. 

3. The tree grows in the garden and it bears fruit. 



Prop. 6.] PRIMARY AND SUB-JOINED SENTENCES. 101 

4. A Sub-joined sentence either qualifies another 
sentence, or some word in it. 

4. I shall go to town, if it does not rain. 

In example fourth, the part in italics is a Sub-joined sentence, be- 
cause it qualifies the whole of the other sentence. 

5. "In faith, I'll break thy little finger, Harry, an if thou 
wilt not tell me all things true? 

6. The tree, wfyich grows in the garden, bears fruit. 

In example sixth, the clause in italics is a Sub-joined sentence, be- 
cause it qualifies the word, tree, in the other sentence. 

7. The tree, growing in the garden, bears fruit. 

8. General Washington, the Father of his country, com- 
manded the American forces during the War of the Revolution. 

9. The sun, rising and dispelling the fog, brings forth the 
golden day. 

10. The sun, which rises and dispels the fogs, brings forth 
the golden day. 

11. The sun, when rising and dispelling the fogs, is bring- 
ing forth the golden day. 

5. Sub-joined sentences are of several kinds. 
Those, which are joined to Leading or Primary sen- 
tences, are called Secondary. Those, joined to Sec- 
ondaries, are called Sub-secondaries or Tertiaries, &c. 

That is, a Sub-secondary or Tertiary bears the same re- 
lation to a Secondary, that the latter bears to a Primary. 
For the same reason, a sentence qualifying a Tertiary is 
called a Sub-tertiary, &c. 

12. General Washington (Primary), the Father of his 
country (Secondary), so called by a figure of speech (Ter- 
tiary), commanded the American forces during the War of 
the Revolution (Primary). 

6. The Sub-joined, by making those sentences, to 
which they are united, more exact and definite, pre- 
vent ambiguities. For this reason, they are used in 
legal documents ; as, in deeds, contracts, wills, &c. 



102 USE OF SUB-JOINED SENTENCES. [Book III. 

7. Close and accurate thinkers seldom use Sub- 
joined sentences below the Tertiary. A few remark- 
able exceptions to this are found. 

8. Loose and careless thinkers use Sub-joined sen- 
tences very freely. Often allowing themselves to be 
led from the subject and to wander after every idea 
suggested, whether it belongs to the main proposition 
or not. These make a narrative disagreeably long 
and tedious by dwelling on minute and unimportant 
details. 

13. Falstaff. — What is the gross sum, that I owe thee? 

Hostess. — Marry, if thou wert an honest man, thyself, and 
the money too. Thou didst swear to me upon a parcel-gilt 
goblet, sitting in my Dolphin-chamber, at the round table, by 
a sea- coal fire upon Wednesday in Wheeson-week, when the 
prince broke thy head, for liking his father to a singing man 
of Windsor ; thou didst swear to me then, as I was washing 
thy wound, to marry me, and make me thy lady, thy wife. 
Canst thou deny it ? Did not goodwife Keech, the butcher's 
wife, come in then, and call me gossip Quickly ? Coming in 
to borrow a mess of vinegar ; telling us, she had a good dish 
of prawns ; whereby thou didst desire to eat some ; whereby 
I told thee they were ill for a green wound ? And didst thou 
not, when she was gone down stairs, desire me to be no more 
so familiarity with such poor people ; saying, that ere long 
they should call me, Madam ? And didst thou not kiss me, 
and bid me fetch thee thirty shillings ? I put thee now to 
thy book-oath ; deny it if thou canst. 



Prop. 7.] OFFICES AND MEANING. 103 



PROPOSITION SEVENTH. 

1 . The Office or Use of a word in a sentence deter- 
mines its Meaning or Signification. Nor does any 
word have a meaning until it is used to form some part 
of a sentence. 

Thus, if we speak or write the word, paint, it has no mean- 
ing, because it does not help to form a sentence ; but when 
we use it in a sentence, then it has an office or use, from 
which its signification or meaning may be known; thus — 

1. Paint beautifies edifices. XYZ. Paint is the Pro- 
ducer. 

2. Artists paint fine pictures. XYZ. Paint is the Act. 

3. The workmen used the paint. X YZ. Paint is the 
Receiver. 

4. Where is the paint brush? Paint is a part of the 
name of the First Part. 

5. Painters use paints. Paint is only a part of X, and a 
part of Z. 

In these examples, we see that paint is employed in five 
different uses or offices, and that we must know, in which of 
these offices it is used, before we can know its signification. 

Every thought contains at least two Parts and hence re- 
quires two words, either expressed or understood, to state it ; 
yet, from the habit of disregarding the offices of words, many 
persons suppose, that isolated words really express thoughts. 
These say, " The word, apple, must be the name of a thing, 
because it suggests a certain kind of fruit." In this they err, 
from failing to observe, that the same word will recall very 
different ideas to different individuals ; we may say, as many 
different ideas as the different pursuits or vocations of the 
different persons using it. Thus, to some, apple would mean 
a certain kind of fruit, because it has been so used by them ; 
to others, dealers in trees, it would suggest only an apple- 



104 USE AND SIGNIFICATION. [Book m. 

tree; to others, apple-sauce; or apple-dealer ; or the apple 
of the eye ; or the Adam's apple ; or the apples of Sodom. 
To each it would suggest according to the manner, in which 
each most frequently or familiarly uses the word, apple. 

SI. A Single or isolated word should be regarded 
only as the sign of a sound; or as a Phon -o-graph. 
When words are used to assist in representing thoughts, 
they become signs of thought or Ide-a~graphs. 

In the subsequent portions of this work, we shall have oc- 
casion to call the reader's attention to the absurdity of the 
notion, that single words are ever, much less generally, 
ideagraphic We now ask careful attention to the follow- 
ing— 

First. Teaching pupils to attach fixed and constant mean- 
ings to words, whether forming parts of sentences or not, 
generally induces them to neglect seeking after the thought, 
which the words should contain. Thus, rendering the pupils 
careless in observing the manner, in which the thought is ex- 
pressed by the author, and consequently careless in regard to 
the modes, in which the pupils state their own thoughts. By 
this superficial mode, they may gain some idea of the win- 
dow, but they will fail to perceive the beauties of the land- 
scape lying beyond it. 

Second. In most of the grammars, now used, the Classifi- 
cation of words into the " Parts of Speech" professes to be 
based on the Signification or Use of the words ; but forth- 
with the pupil is told that, " The name of a person, place, or 
thing, is a noun, as, man, tree, London," &c. Now, as we 
have shown above, not one of these words becomes a noun, 
until it forms some part of a sentence ; and only then, when 
it is used as the name of a person or thing. 

Third. We teach, that the true test of correctness in lan- 
guage is, whether the statement is possible in the thoughts, 
which the language is intended to express. For instance, we 
call a word a Pronoun, if it be used instead, or in the place 
of a noun ; not because others call it a " Pronoun." 



Prop. 8.] USES OR OFFICES OF WORDS. 105 



PROPOSITION EIGHTH. 

1. Words have eight different Uses or Offices in 
sentences; First. Subjects; Second, Affirmers ; Third, 
Objects; Fourth, Relators; Fifth, Adjuncts; Sixth, 
Personators ; Seventh, Connectives ; Eighth, Exclama- 
tives. 

2. First. The Subject is the name of that Logical 
Part, with reference to which, we form a sentence to 
express the thought. It is always the name either of 
the Producer or of the Receiver. (Book II., Prop, iv.) 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The showers refresh the drooping leaves. XYZ. 

2. The drooping leaves are refreshed by the showers. 
ZYX. 

In the first example, we have the name of the Producer or first 
Pai-t used as the subject ; and in the second, that of the Receiver, or 
third Part ; hence, showers and leaves are the subjects. That is, the first 
sentence is formed with reference to showers (X), and the second with 
reference to leaves (Z). 

3. The sun shines brightly. 

4. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words 
stir up anger. XYZ + XYZ. 

5. The new hay scents the air with its fragrance. XYZ. 

Analysis ; Hay is the First Part, the Producer, or X used as the 
subject of a simple, independent sentence, according to Proposition viii., 
First. The subject is the name, &c. 

6. The air is scented by the fragrance of the new hay. 
ZYX. 

Analysis ; Air is the Third Part, the Receiver or Z, used as the sub- 
ject of a simple, independent sentence, because it is the word, with refer- 
ence to which the sentence is constructed. 

5* 



106 SUBJECTS. [Book HI. 

7. John is said to have come. — yYx. 

Analysis; John is the Actor or X, used as the Subject of the sub* 
jective dependent sentence, John to have come. The subject of is said is 
the subjective dependent sentence, John to have come. 

Z 

8. William saw John working. X Y-^^. 

X X. 

Analysis ; William saw John working is an Independent, Mixed sen- 
tence. Its first clause, William saw, is a simple, independent; and its 
second clause, John working, is a simple, dependent sentence. 

William is the Producer or X, used as the Subject of an independent 
sentence. John is the Producer or X, used as the Subject of a depen- 
dent objective sentence. They are the names of those Logical Parts, 
with reference to which the sentences, expressing the thought, are 
formed. 

3. Attempts are often made to construct sentences 
on the Second Part or Y. Formerly this was attempted 
by the " best writers and speakers" more than in mod- 
ern times. It has gradually become less, probably, be- 
cause it compels us to have " an unimportant little word 
at the end of the sentence ;" in violation of a law of 
Rhetoric ; as — 

9. " Charles was applied to." 

Now, Chaises is neither the Actor or X, nor the Receiver 
or Z, of the act, was applied. The sentence being intended 
to say, that Charles was requested, or desired, or asked, or 
entreated. 

In fact, the words, " Charles was applied to" only name a 
Second Part or Y. The whole sentence being, somebody ap- 
plied to Charles, X Y. No Third Part or Z is mentioned, 
as would be the case if we say, " Somebody applied a plaster 
to Charles." 

4. In the English language, when a sentence (& Sub- 
jective Dependent}, is used as a subject, its place is 
usually supplied by the word, It, and the sentence it- 
self is placed after the act. (Prop, v., §6.) 

10. "'Tis sweet to hear the honest watch-dog's bark." 



Pkop. 8.] AFFIRMERS — AFFIRMATION. 107 

5. Second. The Affirmer is the name of the Act, or 
State of Existence , which the Subject produces or re- 
ceives. It is sometimes called a Predicate. 

11. Mary studies. XYz. 

12. Jane sits. XY. 

In the eleventh example, studies names the act or Y f produced by 
Mary ; and in the twelfth, sits names the state of existence of Jane ; 
hence, studies and sits are Affirmers ; because one is the name of the 
act of Mary, and the other the name of the state of existence of Jane. 

13. The fire consumes the fuel. XYZ. 

14. The fuel is consumed by the fire. ZYX. 

6. Affirmers, which have or may have Receivers or 
Third Parts, are called Transitive Affirmers ; those, 
which can not have Receivers, are called Intransitive 
Affirmers. 

15. Jane sings beautiful songs. X YZ. 

Analysis ; Sings is the Act, used as the Affirmer of Jane. It is Tran- 
sitive, because it has a Receiver, songs. 

16. Beautiful songs are sung by Jane. Z YX. 

Analysis ; Are sung is the Act, used as the Affirmer of songs. It is 
Transitive. 

Z 

17. James is said to have fainted. — yYz. 

Analysis ; Is said is the Act, used as the Affirmer of James to ham 
fainted. It is Transitive. To have fainted is the Act, used as the Af- 
firmer of James. It is Intransitive. 

To the Reader.— You may now turn to the Examples, beginning on page 79, 
and find the Subjects and the Affirmers in each. 

7. The Subject and Affirmer together are sometimes 
called the Affirmation, or Predication. 

18. Greatness confers no exemption from care. 

In the above example, greatness confers, is the Affirmation or Predi- 
cation. 

19. The odor of the rose refreshes the sense. 



108 OBJECTS-— FIEST OBJECTS. [Book ILL 

8 . Tliird. An Object is either the name of the Re- 
ceiver in the Second Formula, or else it is that, which 
limits the meaning of the Affirmer as to its cause, man- 
ner, means, instrument, time, price, place, quantity, 
extent, duration, &c. 

20. Yesterday, with the sowing-machine, Farmer Jones 
sowed the grain in the first field, in two hours with perfect 
ease. 

In the last example, the Affirmer, sowed, has for its Ob- 
jects ; grain, the name of the Receiver ; yesterday, time 
when; sowing-machine, means with which; field, place 
where ; hours, time how long ; ease, manner, or how. 

9. There are two kinds of objects ; namely, First 
Objects, and Second Objects. 

t@. The First Object is the name of the Receiver 
in the Second Formula. Since the Receiver is the only 
Part, that can be used as a First Object, and since the 
Receiver can only appear in two Offices — as a subject, 
or as a First Object — it follows that we can have First 
Objects only in sentences formed according to the Sec- 
ond Formula, XY Z ; for, when the Receiver appears 
in the Third Formula, it is used as a Subject. 

21. Canst thou number the stars ? X Y Z. 

22. The stars can not be numbered by thee. Z Y X. 

In the twenty-first example, stars is the Receiver, used as the First 
Object of the affirmer, canst number. 

In the twenty-second example, the Receiver, stars, is used as the 
Subject, and, of course, there is no First Object in the sentence. 

23. Sebastian Cabot first discovered the eastern coast of 
North America. 

24. I hear them singing. X Y -, 

In this example, we have the Objective Dependent sentence, them 
singing, used as the First Object of the Act, hear. (Prop, v., §7.) 



Prop. 8.] SECOND OBJECTS. 109 

25. Thou biddest me (to) renew my griefs. X Y— m 

Me (to) renew my griefs is a Dependent Objective sentence of the 
Affirmcr, biddest, in which the Keceiver, griefs, is also the First Object 
of the Affirmer, (to) renew. 

1 1 . Only Transitive affirmers can have First Ob- 
jects, and the relation of the First Object to the Af- 
firmation is always shown by the Affirmer. 

12. The Second Object is the name of that part of 
the act, which limits the Affirmer, as to its cause, man- 
ner, means, instrument, time, price, place, quantity, 
extent, duration, &c. (See example 20, in which all 
the Objects, except gram, are Second Objects.) 

26. Hudson's ship, the Half-Moon, was also sent to the 
Hudson River in the same year on a like errand by the 
company. 

Analysis ; Hudson River is a Second Object of the affirmer, was sent, 
showing place whither ; year is a second object of the affirmer, was sent, 
showing time when ; errand is a second object of the affirmer, was sent, 
showing cause or purpose why ; company is the Producer, used as the 
second object of the affirmer, was sent. 

13. The Producer can appear in only two offices in 
a sentence, as a Subject, or as a Second Object. In 
the First and Second Formulas, it is always used as a 
Subject ; in the Third, it is used as a Second Object. 
The Producer can be used as a Subject, or as a Second 
Object ; while the Receiver can be used as a Subject, 
or as a First Object. 

27. We are often deceived by appearances. Z YX. 

28. Appearances often deceive us. X Y Z. 

In the twenty-seventh example, we have the Producer, appearances, 
used as the Second Object of the Affirmer, are deceived; in the twenty- 
eighth example, it is used as the Subject. 



110 THE RELATOR — ADJUNCTS. [Book in. 

29. H'e was injured by carelessly handling Ms own pistol. 
ZT ~7Tz- 

In this example, by carelessly handling his own pistol names the Pro- 
ducer and is, therefore, a dependent objective sentence. (Prop, vii., 
Second.) 

30. Carelessly handling his own pistol injured him. 
YZ. 



xYZ 



14. Fourth. The Relator is the name of that part 
of the Act or Second Part, which shows the relation 
of the Second Object to the Affirmer, and sometimes 
of a word to a subject, or to an object. 

31. "The reader can not look into the author's mind un- 
less he looks through the eyes of the author." 

Analysis ; Into is a part of the Act, used to show the relation of mind 
to the Affirmer, can not look ; through is a part of the Act, used to show 
the relation of eyes to the Affirmer, looks ; of is used to show the rela- 
tion of author to eyes. 

32. The land was ploughed by the farmer in the autumn 
under great difficulties in a workmanlike manner. 

To the Reader.— Now, go through the Examples for Exercise on the 20th 
page, giving the- Logical and Rhetorical Analyses through Relators. 

15. There will be as many kinds of second objects, 
as there are Relators in the language, unless two, or 
more Relators be found, which always express the 
same relation, which, in all probability, is never the 
case. 

1©. Fifth. Adjuncts are words used — first, to limit 
the application of a subject, or of an object ; second, to 
name concrete properties ; third, to vary the significa- 
tions of other adjuncts ; and fourth, to designate other 
parts. 

17. Adjuncts, used to limit the application of a 



Prop. 8.] CONCRETE PROPERTIES. Ill 

subject, or of an object, restrict their meanings to some 
particular person, place, or thing. 

33. I see the mountain top. 

Analysis ; Mountain belongs to the Eeceiver, and is used to limit the 
meaning of top, to a particular thing, mountain. 

34. I see the top of the mountain. 

35. I see the mountain's top. 

In the last three examples, the words, mountain, of mountain, and 
mountain's, are used to limit the application of the object, top, to a par- 
ticular kind of thing, as distinguished from the tops of all others ; as 
the tops of houses, the tops of trees, #c. 

36. William's dog has torn John's coat. 

37. General Putnam captured Fort Ticonderoga. 

38. In the height of passion, he slew his friend. 

39. "That shook Cecropia's pillared state." 

18. Adjuncts, used to name Concrete properties, 
tell the quantity, quality, manner, time, order, &c. 

a. Quantity embraces extension, size, number, weight, 
ratio, fyc. 

40. " Two heads are better than one," (head). X YX. 

Analysis ; Two belongs to the Producer, and is used as an adjunct 
of heads, to name the number. 

41. Little waste makes great want. 

42. "Think twice and speak once." x Y + x Y. 

43. " A man is a man for all that," (thing). X YX. 

44. Many things lawful are not (things) expedient. X Yx. 

b. Quality embraces such properties as colors, sounds, 
odors, flowers, temperature, forms, exercise, fyc. (Book I., 
Prop, iii.) 

45. A pleasant sound delights the ready ear. X YZ. 

Analysis ; Pleasant belongs to the Producer, and is used as an ad- 
junct of sound, naming a quality. 

46. A foolish woman is clamorous. 



112 CONTRACTION OF RELATORS. [Book III. 

c. Manner. 

47. He assented cheerfully. X Y. 

Analysis ; Cheerfully belongs to the Act, and is used as an adjunct 
of assented to show manner. 

d. Time. 

48. The work was finished seasonably. Z Yx. (x under- 
stood.) 

e. Order. 

49. Those, who came first, left last. XA-XY ^' 

I©. Adjuncts of the Second Part, or Y, are gener- 
ally contractions of a Relator and a Second Object. 

Thus, in examples forty-seventh and forty-eighth, cheerfully 
and seasonally may be regarded as contractions of in a cheer-* 
ful manner, and in good season. 

50. Adjuncts, which vary, or intensify the meanings 
of other adjuncts. 

50. The most persevering will very generally be the most 
successful man. X YX. 

Analysis ; Most belongs to the Producer, and is used as an Adjunct 
of persevering and successful to vary, or intensify their meanings. So 
of very. 

51. Our harvests were abundant, yours more abundant, 
but theirs were the most abundant. 

52. He is very sincere. 

SI. Adjuncts, which point out or direct the atten- 
tion to particular words. 

53. I will send the former (rains), and the latter rains. 

Analysis ; The former, and the latter belong to the Receiver and are 
used to point out the particular part, rains. 

54. The man told the message to the woman, who told it to 
her husband. 

Analysis ; The belongs to the Producer, and is used as an Adjunct 
of man, to direct the attention to it. Who belongs to the Producer, 



Prop. 8.] PERSONATORS. 113 

and is used as an Adjunct of woman understood, to direct the attention 
thereto. 

55. This boy told that man that the wagon had gone. 

56. Each individual fills some space. 

57. The tree, which (tree) grew in the garden, was trans- 
planted. 

58. Every season has its pleasures. 

2S. Sixth. Personators are words used in the place 
of other words to produce a pleasing variation, or in 
the place of one, or more sentences, for convenience. 

59. Jane saw the boy take his books and put them into 
her desk ; and she says that he saw her when he did it. 

Analysis ; His stands in the place of, or personates the word, boy's, 
which is a part of the Receiver, used to limit the first object, books. 
(See Adjuncts, First.) 

Her stands in the place of, or personates the word, Jane's, which is 
a part of the act, used to limit the second object, desk. 

She personates the word, Jane, which is used as the subject of an 
independent sentence, &c, of the personators, he, her, and he. 

It stands in the place of, take his books and put them into her desk ; 
used as the Receiver of the Act, did. (See Sixth.) 

This example, without personators, would read as follows ; 
Jane saw the boy take the boy's books and put the boy's 
books into Jane's desk, and Jane says, that the boy saw Jane, 
when the boy did take the boy's books, and put the boy's 
books into Jane's desk. 

60. The men put on their clothing, which (clothing) they 
had brought with them in their trunks. 

61. I saw that the man and woman were in trouble. He 
insisting that she had neglected to bring the key ; and she 
insisting that it had been left in its lock at home by him. 

Analysis ; / personates the speaker, the subject of an independent 
sentence. 

62. As for the men and women, themselves, I thought them 
a vulgar and degraded crew, and /congratulated myself, that 
2" should soon be relieved from their company. 



114 CONNECTIVES. [Book in. 

63. We received your baggage with ours, and have dis- 
posed of Ms things, as you desired us to do. 

64. / know that I shall be deemed egotistical if I use I, 
and my, and mine, too often. 

65. It may be true, that the planets are inhabited. 
It personates, that the -planets are inhabited. 

66. It seems to me, that our own happiness is the result of 
our own virtues. 

67. It is a pleasant thing for the eyes to behold the sun. 

33. Seventh. A Connective is the name of the part, 
that joins sentences, or words. 

24. Connectives are of two kinds ; the Extending' 
and the Limiting. 

25. Extending Connectives join clauses, where the 
one joined extends, or continues the narration. 

68. John studies history, and Jane studies botany. 

Analysis ; And is used to join, or to connect the two sentences, John, 
&c. ; it is an Extending Connective, because the sentence joined continues 
the narration. 

69. I heard that you were ill. 

70. I called to see him, but he was not at home. 

71. You knew the story to be true, although he denied it. 

72. Two cents and two cents are four cents. 

When used as in example seventy-second, the and may be analyzed 
as an act by taking it in the sense of added to, as two added to two are 
four, or it may be analyzed as connecting the two words ; the former is 
the more philosophical. 

2®. Limiting Connectives unite clauses, wherein 
one qualifies, or limits the meaning of the other. 

73. The crop will grow if the soil be good. 

Analysis ; If is used to join the two sentences, and is a Limiting 
Connective, because the sentence joined qualifies the one, to which it is 
joined. 

74. The money went as it came. 



Prop. 8.] EXCLAMATIVES. 115 

15. I will go to him unless he comes to me. 

76. Mary will be prepared before Martha comes. 

27. Eighth. Exclamatives are words, which ex- 
press some sudden Emotion, or Passion ; as of joy, or 
sorrow ; pleasure, or pain, &c. ; or, which name a per- 
son, or thing addressed earnestly. They are sometimes 
sentences entire or contracted and sometimes are mere 
vocalizations. 

Exclamatives are often called Interjections. 

11. Grief. " Wo worth the hour ! Wo worth the day, 
That cost thy life ! My gallant Grey ! " 

Analysis ; Wo worth the hour ! is an Exclamative, used to express 
the emotion of the speaker. Wo worth the day, that cost thy life ! is 
analyzed in the same manner. The former is a simple independent, 
and the latter a compound, connected independent sentence. 

My gallant Grey ! names the object addressed, and is, therefore, an 
Exclamative. It may be regarded as the contraction of a sentence ; as, 
I say to thee, my gallant Grey. 

78. Warning. " Lochiel ! Lochiel ! Beware of the day." 

79. Rally. "To arms! To arms! They come! The 
Greek ! The Greek !" 

That is, fly ye to your arms ! The Greek comes. (Contracted.) 

80. Apostrophe. Hail ! Holy Light ! 

81. Affected Surprise. Oh ! Ah ! Yes ! I do remember 
now, Mi-s-t-e-r Williams ! 

Grief turning to Anguish. 

82. "And I behold— oh God! oh God ! 

His life-blood oozing from the sod !" 

83. Coaxing. Patty. Poor William ! Oh ! grandmoth- 
er, do let me go ! • • 

Affected Indifference. Mrs. Matthews. Humph ! 
Patty. My Cousin Mary will be so disappointed. 
Mrs. Matthews. Humph ! 

84. Cheering. Three cheers for ourselves! Hurrah! 
Hurrah ! Hurrah ! Hip ! Hip ! Hip ! Hurrah ! 



116 CONTRACTED SENTENCES. [Book IIL 



PROPOSITION NINTH. 

1. Usually, we do not express a part of a sen- 
tence, which may be known without being expressed, 
but leave it to be understood. In this case, the part 
expressed is called a Contracted Sentence. Hence, we 
have Contracted Simple, and Contracted Compound 
sentences. 

The Contractions of language are a part of that labor- 
saving tendency, which is a characteristic of human intelli- 
gence and of human progress. Did we not regard this ten- 
dency to economize labor as essential to human development, 
and hence, a part of man's constitution, we would attribute it 
to a meaner instinct, and define man to be pre-eminently, 
" The lazy animal." This disposition to lessen labor is shown 
no where more than in the Contractions of Language. 

Heretofore too little attention has been given to the Con- 
tractions of Sentential Language as a part of the Science of 
Language. In practice, the parts understood sometimes be- 
ing supplied, or else the parts expressed being considered in 
reference to them ; and in other instances, the parts expressed 
being considered as a new construction. This will be ex- 
plained more fully in the Grammatical Analysis. 

It is undoubtedly the Teacher's duty to unfold the princi- 
ples, upon which language is contracted, and to explain 
these principles fully, until the pupil understands per- 
fectly what each contraction is intended to express; what 
contractions are admissible, and what are inadmissible ; and 
how to contract his own expressions so as to avoid ambigui- 
ties. 

S. Contracted language is more indefinite, or am- 
biguous, than uncontracted language, or language ex- 
pressed in full. 



Pkop. 10.] CONTRACTED SIMPLE SENTENCES. 117 



PROPOSITION TENTH. 

1 . A Simple Sentence is Contracted, when one, or 
more of its Logical, or Rhetorical parts, is understood. 
In the Formulas, the part understood may be repre- 
sented by a small letter. 

First. When a Subject is understood. 

1. Go in peace, x Y. 

That is, Go thou in peace ; or, Go ye in peace. 
Analysis; X t thou, or ye understood; Y> go in peace. 

2. Grant thy favor, x Y. 

Do thou, or, Do ye grant thy favor. 

2. When the speaker is supposed to be in the pres- 
ence of the one addressed, we have no occasion for a 
name to designate the Subject of the sentence. 

Second. When an Affirmer is understood. 

3. Who watches here ? 

Answer. John, Xy. That is, John watches here. 
Analysis ; X, John ; y, watches here, understood. 

4. What drives the steamboat ? 
Answer. The steam. Xyz. 

Third. When the First Object is understood. 

5. John eats. X Yz. That is, John eats food, or victu- 
als, &c. 

Analysis ; John eats is a Contracted, Simple sentence in the second 
formula, XYz. X, John ; Y } eats ; z, food, understood. 

If we assert that John eats, we virtually assert that he 
eats something. Hence, we sometimes use these formulas as 
contracted formulas, X Y — , that is, X Y minus Z, or X Y, 
z being understood. 

6. Ye shall sow in peace. X Yz. 



118 CONTEACTED SIMPLE SENTENCES. [Book III. 

Fourth. When a Second Object is understood. 

7. The land was ploughed. Z Yx, or Z Y-. x under- 
stood. 

8. The earth was created. 

Fifth. When a Relator is understood. 

9. He gave me a dollar. X Y Z. 
He gave a dollar to me. 

10. I am going home. X Y. 

I am going to my home, or towards. 

Not only in the English, but also in other languages, after 
certain affirmers, when the second object is placed before the 
first, the Relator is understood. In such instances, many 
grammarians have erroneously taught, that both words become 
first objects ; or, to use their own expression, that " The cases 
of both words are governed by the verb ! !" What wonder 
that grammar, when thus taught, has been deemed a loose 
science ? 

Sixth. When the Relator and Second Object with 
its adjuncts are contracted into a single word. 
(Prop, viii., Relator.) 

11. He came in due time. He came timely. X Y. 

12. From good luck it happened. Luckily it happened. 

13. Study to be in truth eminent. Study to be truly emi- 
nent. 

14. From which place we came by the stage. Whence we 
came by the stage. 

15. To what place shall I fly ? Whither shall I fly ? 

16. In this place let us tarry. Here let us tarry. 

17. By good fortune for us, he did not return by the direct 
route. Fortunately for us, he did not return directly. 

18. Work during the time the day lasts. Work while the 
day lasts. 

19. At the time y sorrow clouds thy brow. When sorrow 
clouds thy brow. 



Prop. 11.] FIRST PRIMARY CONTRACTIONS. 119 



PROPOSITION ELEVENTH. 

1 . When the same parts of the clauses forming a 
compound sentence are expressed in the same words, 
one of these similar parts may be expressed in one 
clause, and understood in the other ; except after Lim- 
iting connectors. 

2. The contractions thus formed are considered as 
Primary or Simple, and as Secondary or Compound con- 
tractions. 

3. The Primary or Simple contractions are of five 
kinds. 

4. First Primary contraction. When the subjects 
are alike in both clauses. 

Rule. Express the subject of the first clause, and 
let the subject of the second clause be understood. 

1. Unprincipled men live knaves, and unprincipled men 
die beggars. 

Analysis / This is a connected, compound sentence, having the sub- 
jects of both clauses expressed. 

Contracted Form. Unprincipled men live knaves, and die beggars. 
In the same manner contract the following examples. 

2. John walks and John rides. 

3. A wise man feareth, and a wise man departeth from 
evil, but a fool rageth, and a fool is confident. 

4. The Indians plundered the inhabitants, and the Indians 
carried off great booty. 

5. Fruit-trees grow, and fruit-trees blossom, and fruit-trees 
bear fruit. 

6. The powerful Hatteras tribe, which Hatteras tribe num- 
bered three thousand in Raleigh's time, were reduced to fif- 
teen bowmen. 



120 SECOND PRIMARY CONTRACTION. [Book HI. 

7. There are two kinds of books, viz. ; the good books, and 
the bad books. 

8. Sarah plays and sings. 

Analysis ; Sarah plays and sings is a compound sentence, contracted 
according to the First Primary Eorm. Its expanded, or uncontracted 
form is, Sarah plays and Sarah sings. 

9. Barclay and Penn were personal friends and travelled 
much together. 

10. Dissenters and Non-conformists, now suffered many 
disabilities in Virginia, and looked to the wilderness for free- 
dom. 

11. "On either of which, he would dispute, 

Confute, change hands, and still confute." 

12. The innumerable questions, which a sensible child asks, 
demand an answer. That is, which innumerable, &c. 

13. He heard, but disregarded the counsels of his teacher. 

14. Distance should neither retard, nor prevent the fulfil- 
ment of duty. 

15. If thou be wise, thou shalt be wise for thyself. {Prop. 
XL, Exception.) 

1 6. George came, although he could not stay. 

17. He will come, provided he receives my letter. 

18. I will inform you, when I think it proper. 

5. Second Primary contraction. When the Affirmers 
are alike in both clauses. 

Rule. When objects occur, express the first affirmer, 
and understand the second; when no objects occur, un- 
derstand the first ajfirmer, and express the second. 

19. Gamesters never live long, and racers never live long. 
Contracted Form — Gamesters and racers never live long. 

20. We w r ere exposed by night, and we were exposed by 
day, until the boats came to our rescue. 

Contracted Form — We were exposed night and day, until the boats 
came to our rescue. (Because objects occur, we express the first and 
understand the second affirmer.) 



Prop. 11.] THIRD PRIMARY CONTRACTION. 121 

21. John does not improve but William does improve. 

22. They sleep well if they sleep soundly. (Prop. Ex- 
ception.) 

23.- Anna gave gold, Sarah gave silver, Thomas gave food, 
and James gave clothing. 

24. The book is taught too much, and the subject too little. 

Analysis ; The book is taught too much, and the subject too little, 
is a compound sentence, contracted in the Second Primary Form. Its 
uncontracted, or expanded form is, The book is taught too much by 
the Teacher, and the subject is taught too little by the Teacher. 

25. A gentleman presided in one department and a lady in 
the other. 

26. The English were commanded by Sir William John- 
son, the French by Baron Dieskau. 

27. The earth and the sky and the sea are ever changing. 

28. The sunlight gives beauty and the moisture freshness 
to vegetation. 

29. The monuments of past ages and the memorials of in- 
dividual greatness are before you. 

6. Third Primary contraction. When the First Ob- 
jects are the same in both. 

Rule. Generally in independent sentences, under- 
stand the first Object, and express the second; but in 
dependent sentences, express the first Object, and un- 
derstand the second. 

30. He makes the books and I sell the books. 
Contracted Form — He makes and I sell the books. (Independent.) 

31. I sell the books, which books he makes. 

Contracted Form — I sell the books, which he makes. (Dependent.) 

32. Farmers raise the grain and millers grind the grain. 

' 33. He has very little money and he needs a great deal 
of money. 

Instead of contracting these sentences, we often put a personator in 
the place of the second word, to make a pleasant variation of sounds. 
(Prop, viii., Sixth.) 

6 



122 FOURTH PRIMARY CONTRACTION. [Book III. 

34. Farmers raise the grain and millers grind it. 

35. Carpenters build houses and we dwell in houses. 

36. Prudence heaps up and prodigality scatters riches. 
Analysis; Prudence heaps up and prodigality scatters riches, is a 

compound sentence, contracted in the Third Primary Form. Its ex- 
panded, or uncontracted form is, Prudence heaps up riches and prodi- 
gality scatters riches. 

37. The latter attacked and the former plundered the 
town. 

38. The rapid increase of the new colony excited and its 
military array justified the fears of its Spanish neighbors. 

39. And, if the night hath gathered, or if the darkness 
hath concealed aught of evil. 

40. We saw the child, which you mentioned. 

41. We 3§w the man, whom you mentioned, (whom man.) 

42. I will defend the tower, if they assail it. (Prop. Ex- 
ception.) 

43. We will respect his motives, whose motives are vir- 
tuous. 

44. The farmer raises the grain and the dealer sells it. 

7. Fourth Primary contraction. When the Second 
Objects are alike. 

Rule. Generally understand the former, and ex- 
press the latter Second Object. 

45. Steam-ships travel over the sea and sailing vessels sail 
over the sea. 

Contracted Form — Steam-ships travel and sailing vessels sail over 
the sea. 

46. We have just come from the town and you are just 
going to the town. 

47. I saw gold there and James saw copper there. (Prop. 
x., Sixth.) 

48. I executed my mission in haste and you performed 
your task in haste. 

49. Peter's aid came timely, and Samuel's letter came in 
good time. (Prop, x., Sixth.) 



Prop. 11.] FIFTH PRIMARY ^CONTRACTION. 123 

50. Seth Sothel conducted himself disgracefully in Vir- 
ginia, and afterward behaved in a disgraceful manner in 
Carolina. 

51. He reads and she sings delightfully. 

Analysis ; He reads and she sings delightfully is a connected sentence, 
contracted as in the Fourth Primary Contraction. 

Its expanded, or uncontracted form is — He reads delightfully, and 
she sings delightfully; or, He reads in a delightful manner, and she 
sings in a delightful manner. (Prop, x., Sixth.) 

52. He goes there and they expect him daily. 

8 . Fifth Primary contraction. When the same Con- 
nector is used several times. 

Rule. Understand all but the last connector. 

9. If all the connectives be expressed, the Ex- 
pression is called Poly-syn-det-on (many connectors). 
If all but one be understood, it is called A-syn-det-on 
(without connectors). 

53. John and James and Thomas and William and Joseph 
study faithfully. Polysyndeton. 

54. John, James, Thomas, William, and Joseph study 
faithfully. Asyndeton. 

10. Mixed Compound Sentences are sometimes con- 
tracted by omitting the to, when used as a part of the 
affirmer in Dependent Objective Sentences. 

55. I bade him to jump. Contracted. I bade him jump. 

56. He heard her to speak. Con. He heard her speak. 

57. You asked them to sing. {Not contracted.) You 
asked them to sing. 

58. John told him to leave it. (Not contracted.) 

59. We saw them to strike the horse. Con. We saw them 
strike the horse. 

60. I told him to speak freely and to declare his views, 
but he declined to do it. 



124 SECONDARY CONTRACTIONS. [Book III. 

1 1 . The Secondary, or Compound Contractions are 
formed by using two, or more Primary Contractions in 
the same Compound Sentence. These Contractions are 
made according to the principles laid, down in Primary 
Contractions. (Page 119, 4.) 

61. He will bestow food, and he will bestow raiment. 

Contracted Form — He will bestow food and raiment. (First and 
Second Primary Forms.) 

62. The king made great works, and the king made fenced 
cities. 

63. We took a long walk, and we took a pleasant walk. 

Contracted Form — We took a long and pleasant walk. (First and 
Third Primary Forms.) 

64. " The true monarchs of every country are those, whose 
sway is over thought and emotion." 

Uncontracted Form — The true monarchs of every country are those, 
whose sway is over thought, and the true monarchs of every country 
are those, whose sway is over emotion. 

65. " Scotland, Ireland, Germany, Holland, France, Swe- 
den, Denmark, and the Baltic region, contributed large quotas 
of people, and other colonial instrumentalities." 

This example contains sixteen simple sentences. Its uncontracted, 
or expanded form is, Scotland contributed large quotas of people, and 
Scotland contributed large quotas of other colonial instrumentalities, 
&c, of Ireland, Germany, &c. 

This example also illustrates the convenience and economy of the 
Contraction of Compound Sentences. 

6Q. The following examples exhibit some curious uses of 
connectors and their effects on the significations of sentences. 
We start with Eight simple sentences, which finally become 
Sixteen simple sentences by inserting a single connector. 

1. John clothed the man. X Y Z. 

2. John clothed the boy. X Y Z. 

3. Ann clothed the woman. X Y Z. 

4. Ann clothed the girl. X YZ. 

5. John fed the man. X YZ. 



Prop. 11.] SECONDARY CONTRACTIONS. 125 

6. John fed the boy. XYZ. 

7. Ann fed the woman. XYZ. 

8. Ann fed the girl. XYZ. 

Now, by uniting the first and second, the third and fourth, the fifth 
and sixth, the seventh and eighth examples, and contracting, we reduce 
the whole to four Compound Contracted Sentences. 

9. John clothed the man and the boy. X Y Z + xy Z. 

10. Ann clothed the woman and the girl. X Y Z + xy Z, 

11. John fed the man and the boy. X Y Z + xy Z. 

12. Ann fed the woman and the girl. X Y Z + xy Z. 

Now, by connecting examples nine and eleven, and also ten and 
twelve, and again contracting, we have ; — 

13. John clothed and fed the man and the boy. X Yz + 

XYz + xYZ + xyZ, 

14. Ann clothed and fed the woman and the girl. X Yz + 

XYz + xYZ + xyZ. 

Now, connecting examples thirteen and fourteen, by placing the con- 
nector between the sentences, we have the eight simples in one com- 
pound sentence. But, if we place the connector between John and 
Ann, and then contract, we will cause the sentence to state, that John 
performs two different acts (clothes and feeds), to four different persons 
(man, boy, woman, and girl), making eight simple statements ; and, of 
course, the same statements are made concerning Ann. So, that the 
use of this last connector makes the expression equivalent to sixteen 
simples. 

15. John and Ann clothed and fed the man, the woman, 
the boy, and the girl. XYZ, sixteen times. 

This example illustrates the importance of placing the con- 
nector in the proper place. 

12. Before beginning to study the Grammatical 
Analysis, make the Logical and Rhetorical Analyses 
very familiar. 

13. The Extracts, in Book Fifth, will furnish a 
sufficient variety of examples for farther practice. 



126 EMPHATIC WORDS. [Book HI. 



PROPOSITION TWELFTH. 

1 . When particular importance is attached to a cer- 
tain part of a thought, the word naming it is either 
spoken more distinctly than the other words, or it is 
written in a different form. These words are called 
the Emphatic Words. 

2. In writing, we sometimes mark the Emphatic 
words by drawing a line under them (underscoring) ; 
in printing, we use a different kind of type, generally 
the Italic ; as — 

1. * yb&a)anae4/ conauetecv QzJavuw, 

2. Julius Caesar invaded Britain in the year, 55 B. C. 

3. I saw, over the gate, "Beware of the Dog." 

3. In answering questions, we frequently give the 
Emphatic words only; as — 

4. Who conquered Darius ? 

Arts. Alexander. That is, Alexander conquered Darius. 

5. What did Alexander do to Darius ? 

Ans. Conquered him. That is, Alexander conquered 
Darius. 

6. Whom did Alexander conquer ? 

Ans, Darius. That is, Alexander conquered Darius. 

4. Sometimes certain parts of a thought are less 
important than the Emphatic, while they are more im- 
portant than the other parts; these are called the 
Partially Emphatic; as — 

7. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is 
the heaviness of his mother. 

In this example, glad and heaviness are less important than wise and 
foolish, while they are more important than the other words. 



Prop. 12.] GENERAL OR LEADING SUBJECTS. 127 

8. I, Paul, write these things to you. 

9. An Irish barrister, in the heat of a debate, said, " The 
Lord-Lieutenant (p. e.) of Ireland, and this House (p. e.) 
are the worst (e.) subjects, the king has ;" being called to 
retract, he apologized by saying, "I am accused (p. e.) of 
having said that the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and this 
House are the worst subjects, the king has. I said (e.) so. 
It is true (e.), and I am sorry (p. e.) for it." If we read 
as above, he is sorry that such a statement is true ; but, if 
we read it, "I said so (p. e.), it is true; and I am sorry (e.) 
for it," then it becomes an apology. 

In reading aloud and in public speaking, correctness in 
emphasis contributes so much to the ease, with which the 
hearer understands, that its neglect is unpardonable. Chil- 
dren, in play, emphasize very correctly and beautifully ; and 
so do adults in animated conversation; while it is generally 
very badly done when they read from the written, or printed 
page. This comes partly from neglect on the part of the 
teacher, while the pupil is learning to read ; and partly from 
requiring pupils to read that, which they either do not, or 
can not understand. (See p. 19, a.) 

10. Alexander, the Great, said, "If I were not Alexan- 
der, I would be Diogenes." 

5. The first place or beginning of a sentence is the 
most conspicuous ; hence, the emphatic word is placed 
at the beginning whenever it can be done ; and this is 
considered equivalent to underscoring, or to italici- 
zing' it. 

11. Fling care to the winds, my merry men ! 

12. My merry men ! fling care to the winds. 

6. The Name of that, concerning which we write 
or speak, is the General or Leading Subject of all 
that is written or said ; and hence, it is usually the 
emphatic word, and, for this reason, it usually occupies 
the first place in the sentence. 



128 PLACES IN SENTENCES. [Book HI, 

7. In the English language, when the subject is the 
emphatic word, the sentence is arranged in the follow- 
ing manner, which is called the Simple or Direct Ar- 
rangement. 

First; The Subject and its adjuncts. 

Second; The Affirmer and its adjuncts. 

Third; The First Object, if there be one, and its adjuncts. 

Fourth ; The Second Object and its adjuncts. 

13. True wisdom (first place), always leads (second 
place), its possessor (third place), to some practical re- 
sults (fourth place). 

14. The crew (1st p.), deserted (2d p.), the old ship (3d 
p.), in a moment of peril (4th p.). 

15. I, wisdom (1.), dwell (2.), with Prudence (4). 

1 6. The earth was created in six days by God. 

17. The colonies were declared to be independent in July, 
1776. 

8. When the Emphatic word is not the Subject and 
is placed first, the part, thus placed, is said to be 
transposed; and the sentence itself is said to be in- 
verted. 

18. In the beginning, God created the heaven and the 
earth. 

In the beginning, is a transposed second object ; and the sentence is 
inverted* 

19. In the beginning, the heaven and the earth were cre- 
ated by God. 

20. "Whom ye ignorantly worship; him declare I unto 
you." 

21. To us, grant thy favor, O Lord ! 

22. "Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the greater 
artist ; in the one we must admire the man, in the other 
the work." 



Peop. 13.] PUNCTUATION. 129 



PROPOSITION THIRTEENTH. 

1 . In ivritten language, we use certain Characters 
called the Points, Signs, or Marks of Punctuation, as 
aids in distinguishing sentences, parts of sentences, and 
words. (Prop. L, 1.) 

As far as these points enable the reader to distinguish Sen- 
tences, and the Character of Sentences, it is of great impor- 
tance that they be known and observed by the reader ; but it 
will not do to teach the pupil that, " These Points are only to 
be observed as stopping places for the purpose of resting the 
organs of speech." A good reader will often pause where 
these points are inadmissible. For when the words, repre- 
senting the different Logical Parts of a thought, are not 
mingled, so as to prevent it, we should make a slight pause 
between each of the Logical and also some of the Rhetorical 
Parts of a sentence ; as — 

1. " God — moves — in a mysterious way, 

His wonders — to perform; 

He — plants his footsteps — in the sea, 

And rides — upon the storm." 

The dashes show that the voice pauses at places, in which no Point 
could be inserted. 

The Character of a sentence frequently depends on its 
Punctuation ; a barber put up the following ; — 

2. " What do you think I shave for a penny and give you 
a drink." 

As it had no punctuation, some of his customers read it ; — 

3. "What do you think? I shave for a penny and give 
you a drink;" but, when a customer demanded the drink, the 
cunning barber read it ; — 

4. What ! do you think I shave for a penny, and give you 
a drink ? 

6* 



130 PERIOD. [Book III. 

2. The Characters, used in Punctuation, are of five 
kinds ; First , those used at the end of sentences ; Sec- 
ond, those used to show the parts, or interruptions of 
sentences ; Third, those used to show contractions ; 
Fourth, those used for reference ; and Fifth, those used 
for pronunciation. 

2. jFYrs£. The characters, used at the end of sen- 
tences, are the Terminal, the Interrogative, and the Ex- 
clamative Periods. 

4. The Terminal Period [.] is used at the end of 
Simple and of Compound sentences, where the thought 
and text both end at the same word. The word Period 
signifies a circuit or completeness. 

5. " No man may put off the law of God." 

6. " Covet earnestly the best gifts, and yet show I you a 
more excellent way." 

5. The Interrogative Period, or Interrogation Point 
[?] is used in the place of a Terminal Period when the 
sentence asks a question. 

7. " Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased V 

8. " How now Tubal ? What news from Genoa ? Hast 
thou found my daughter ?" 

9. Angelo. " Now, what is the matter, provost ? 
Provost Is it your will Claudio shall die to-morrow ? 
Angelo. Did not I tell thee, yea ? Hadst thou not order ? 

Why dost thou ask again ?" 

©. The Exclamative Period, or Exclamation Point 
[!] is used in the place of the Terminal when sudden 
emotion, or surprise is expressed. 

10. " Can gold gain friendship ? Impotence of hope !" 

11. "Oh! monstrous! Oh! strange! We are haunted. 
Pray, masters ! Fly, masters ! Help !" 



Prop. 13.] COLON — SEMICOLON. 131 

7. Second. Those Characters, used to show the 
parts or interruptions of sentences, are the Colon, Semi- 
colon, Comma, Quotation, Dash, Parenthesis, and 
Brackets. (See p. 130, 2.) 

8. The Colon [:] is used where the text stops while 
the thought continues. The word colon signifies a 
member i or clause. 

a. The colon is used before a distinct, or formal list of 
particulars separated by semicolons ; as — 

12. We will consider the parts of a plant, as follows : first, 
the roots ; second, the stem ; third, the foliage. 

h. The colon is used between the larger clauses of com- 
pound sentences when the less are separated by the semi- 
colon; as — 

13. " He sunk to repose where the red heaths are blended ; 

One dream of his childhood, his fancy passed o'er : 
But his battles are fought, and his marching is ended ; 
The sound of the bagpipe shall wake him no more." 
c. The colon is used between the parts of a compound sen- 
tence when one explains the cause, the reason, or the effect 
of the other and the connective is omitted ; as — 

14. Beware of idleness : it tendeth to poverty. 

The above rules are given, for those, who prefer to use the 
colon ; rather than because we deem it a necessary, or even 
a convenient character in punctuation, except it be in propor- 
tions. Of the many Systems of Punctuation, which we have 
examined, not one contains rules distinguishing the use of the 
colon from that of the other characters ; nor do we think it 
possible to give such rules ; and hence, we agree with those, 
who reject it altogether. 

®. The Semicolon [;] is used where the text is in- 
terrupted while the idea continues, or is not fully com- 
pleted. Semicolon means a half-member. 

Those, who use the colon, teach that it is to be placed be- 



132 SEMICOLON. [Book m. 

tween sentences more remotely related ; while the semicolon is 
to be placed between those more nearly related ; so that the 
whole difference between the two is made to depend on the 
kind of relation between the sentences. Now, since this rela- 
tion is entirely a matter of opinion, there is no test, by which 
to determine its remoteness, or nearness ; and, of course, no 
way to distinguish the use of the one from the use of the 
other, except by arbitrary rules. 

a. The semicolon is used before a distinct list of particu- 
lars, separated by commas ; as — 

15. Mankind are divided into four classes ; the European, 
the American, the Asiatic, and the African. 

b. The semicolon is used between two sentences, where one 
explains the reason, or the effect of the other ; as — 

16. Beware of idleness ; for it tendeth to poverty. 

If the colon be not used at all, example fourteen should be punctu- 
ated with the semicolon, and example sixteen, with the comma, or as 
it is. 

17. The name of the defendant in this action having been 
called, Mr. Jay responded as counsel, and said ; — 

" May it please the court," &c. 

If it he written ; — and said, w May it please—" &c, then the dash 
should be omitted ; but when the part belonging after the affirmer — as 
in example seventeen ; or after the connective, as before example six- 
teen — is transferred, the dash takes its place. 

18. " Head ; not for the purpose of contradicting and con- 
futing ; nor of believing and taking for granted ; nor of find- 
ing material for argument and conversation ; but in order to 
weigh and consider the thoughts of others." 

c. A semicolon is placed between the clauses of a com- 
pound sentence, which are farther divisible by commas ; as — 

19. "In youth, we are looking forward to things, that are 
to come ; in old age, we are looking backward to things, that 
are gone past ; in manhood, although we appear, indeed, to 
be more occupied in things, that are present, yet even that is 



Prop. 13.] SEMICOLON — COMMA. 133 

too often absorbed in vague determinations to be vastly happy 
on some future day, when we have time." 

d. A semicolon is used when several sentences in the 
same period are dependent, whether contracted, or uncon- 
tracted. 

20. " For to one, is given by the spirit the word of wis- 
dom ; to another, the word of knowledge by the same spirit ; 
to another, faith by the same spirit," &c. 

21. " Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her 
operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; 
that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all fu- 
ture generations will continue to make discoveries, of which 
we have not the slightest idea." 

Example twenty-one might be punctuated by using commas instead 
of the semicolons. Some would use the colon, or semicolon in ex- 
amples like the following, in wiiich the exclamative is manifestly the 
proper point ; — 

22. Yes ; the gentleman has dared to assert. Yes ! the, &c. 

23. No ; you have judged, as I have. No ! you, &c. 

10. The Comma [,] is used to show a break, or in- 
terruption in a sentence. The word Comma signifies 
a part cut off. 

1 1 . The comma may be understood when no am- 
biguity will be occasioned by omitting it. Such cases 
are to be considered the same as contractions, and on 
the same principle. (See p. 116.) 

a. A comma is used in simple sentences after transposed 
parts, and after a break preceding a transposed part ; as — 

24. Without labor, there is no excellence. 

25. To the true, virtue becomes habitual. 

In example twenty-four, the comma may be understood ; but not so 
in example twenty-five; lest the reader mistake true as an adjunct of 
virtue — true virtue. 

26. To the intelligent and virtuous, old age presents a 
scene of tranquil enjoyment. 

27. Vice, to the pure in heart, is never attractive. 



134 COMMA. LBook m. 

b. A comma should be expressed, or understood at the end 
of every clause of a compound sentence, except those requir- 
ing a period, a colon, or a semicolon. 

28. " Why, for so many a year, has the poet and the philos- 
opher wandered amid the fragments of Athens or of Home ; 
and paused, with strange and kindling feelings, amid their 
broken columns, their mouldering temples, their deserted 
plains ? It is because their day of glory is past." 

Commas, before the italicized connectives, are understood. (See xi.) 

29. "The pride of wealth is contemptible, the pride of 
learning is pitiable, the pride of dignity is ridiculous, and the 

-pride of bigotry is insupportable." 

c. A comma should be expressed, or understood before 
and after a relative or sub-joined sentence. (See p. 101.) 

30. " Civilization, which on the whole has never gone 
backward, is new-shaped and modified by each particular 
people." 

31. " Simple truths, when simply explained, are more 
easily comprehended, I believe, than is commonly supposed." 

d. When a connective, or a word beginning a sentence is 
understood, a comma should be used, except it be a very short 
explanatory clause. 

32. " In what school did the Washingtons, Henrys, Han- 
cocks, and Eutledges, of America, learn the principles of civil 
liberty?" (Seep. 123, §9.) 

33. " The cause, I knew not, I diligently searched out." 

34. Perfect sincerity, earnestness of manner, a thorough 
conviction of the truth he utters, extensive knowledge, sound 
sense, keen sensibility, solid judgment, a great command of 
language, a correct and graceful elocution, are some of the 
essentials of oratory, or eloquence. 

The above directions for the use of the comma, together 
with what has been said under the other Characters, and the 
exercise of some discretion on the part of the writer as to 
when he shall insert and when omit, will enable him to use 
the comma correctly. 



Prop. 13.] QUOTATION. 135 

12. The Quotation [" "] is used when a passage is 
taken from another author in his own words. It con- 
sists of two inverted commas at the beginning and two 
not inverted at the end. Quotation here means how 
much. 

35. Christ said, " Suffer little children to come unto me 
and forbid them not ; for of such is the kingdom of heaven." 

36. " How sleep the brave, who sink to rest 

With all their country's wishes bless'd." 

a. A quotation within a quotation is shown by using one 
of the commas at each end ; as — 

37. " Tell me not, in mournful numbers, 

' Life is but an empty dream/ " 

38. Said the preacher, " My friends ; impressed with this 
dispensation, we can not forbear to exclaim, ' How mysterious 
are the ways of Providence !' and yet we shall one day re- 
joice in view of the wisdom, goodness, and mercy of this 
very event." 

b. When several separate, paragraphs are quoted, the two 
commas are placed at the beginning of each, but the final 
two are used at the end of the last paragraph only. 

39. u No man can be happy, who is destitute of good feel- 
ings and generous principles. 

" No man, who is indifferent to the happiness of others, can 
possess good feelings and generous principles. 

" Therefore, no man can be happy, who is indifferent to the 
happiness of others." 

c. When merely the substance of another's remark is 
given, without giving the exact words of the author, the 
quotations are not to be used ; as — 

40. The speaker said, he believed the story to be true. 

41. The speaker said, "I believe the story to be true." 



136 DASH. [Book III. 

IS. The Dash [ — ] is used ; first, instead of words 
or letters placed elsewhere, or omitted ; second, when 
a lengthy passage is inserted between, the parts of a 
sentence ; and third, when an abrupt transition occurs, 

42. First He began by saying ; — 

" Can I forget that I have been branded as an outlaw ?" 

43. In the village of N — s, in the state of L — , in the year 
of our Lord, 18 — . 

44. Second. " What a lesson the word ' diligence' contains ? 
How profitable is it for every one of us to be reminded, — 
as w r e are reminded, when we make ourselves aware of its 
derivation from diligo ' to love/ — that the only secret of true 
industry in our work is love of that work !" 

45. Third. Love asks gold; — to build a home full of de- 
lights for father, mother, wife, children, and — 

46. Lady Teazle. Nay, you know if you will be angry 
without any reason, my dear — 

Sir Peter. There, now you want to quarrel again. 
Lady T. No, I am sure I don't. But if you will be so 
peevish — 

Sir P. There, now ! who begins first ? 

a. The dash is used before an abrupt turn ; as — 

47. " The king himself has followed her — 

When she has gone before." 

b. The dash is used before the repetition of a word which 
has just been uttered, and being repeated emphatically is 
called the echo ; as — 

48. Compelled by necessity — necessity, the stern parent 
of invention. 

49. Shall I think of heaven — heaven, did I say ? 

c. In elocution, the dash is sometimes used to separate the 
emphatic words ; as — 

50. " Such are the excuses, which irreligion offers. Could 
you have believed that they were so empty — so unworthy 
— so hollow — so absurd ?" 



Prop. 13.] PARENTHESIS — BRACKETS. 137 

14. The Marks of Parenthesis () include a sen- 
tence, a number, or a reference to some other part of 
the book, not of sufficient importance to be made a 
connected part of the sentence. Parenthesis means 
putting' along with. 

51. " You know, my dear (the words 'my dear* always de- 
note the beginning of a quarrel), that you forgot the clock?" 

52. " The play, I remember, pleased not the million ; 'twas 
caviare to the general ; but it was (as I received it, and 
others, whose judgment, in such matters, cried at the top of 
mine), an excellent play ; — " 

a. A parenthesis inclosing an interrogative period throws 
doubt on a preceding statement ; as — 

53. He gives out that he is a son of a nobleman (?), and 
is daily expecting a remittance from home. It may be so (?). 

b. A parenthesis inclosing an exclamative period denotes 
irony, or contempt ; as — 

54. These fellows are reformers (!), philanthropists (!), 
so are the evil spirits of Pandemonium, and in very much 
the same way. 

55. " Yet Brutus says, he was ambitious ; and sure Brutus 
is an honorable man (!). 

1 15. The Brackets [ ] are used to inclose an ex- 
planation, or the correction of mistakes made by an 
author, from whom we are quoting ; the pronunciations 
of words ; the dates of events ; and frequently for the 
same purpose as the marks of parenthesis. 

56. "The lover shall not* sigh gratis ; the humorous man 
shall end his part in peace ; [the clown shall make those 
laugh, whose lungs are tickled o' the sere ;] and the lady 
shall say her mind freely ;" — \_Hamlet. 

57. In this year [April, 1775] was fought 4he battle of 
Lexington. 



138 v ABBREVIATION MARKS. [Book III. 

58. This series of names- present [presents] no new ones. 

59. " In the bivouac [be-voo-ak] of life." 

60. Queen. What wilt thou do ? thou wilt not murder me ? 
Help, help, ho ! 

Polonius. [Behind.] What, ho ! help ! 

Hamlet How, now ! a rat ? [Draws.'] Dead for a ducat, 
dead. [Makes a pass through the screen.] 

The marks of parenthesis are used by some instead of the brackets ; 
either is correct. 

1©. Third. Those characters, used to show abbre- 
viations or contractions, are the Contracted Period, the 
Apostrophe, the Ditto Marks, the Hyphen, the Brace, 
the Ellipsis, Leaders, and the Caret. 

17. The Contracted Period is used where the first 
part of a word stands for the whole of the word ; as — 

61. "And the earth was without form and void." Gen. 
c. I., v. 2. 

a. Sometimes a dash may be used instead of the Con- 
tracted Period. (See p. 136, ex. 43.) 

18. The Apostrophe [ ? ] is used where letters are 
omitted at the beginning, or from the middle of a 
word, and in the terminations of some adjuncts. Apos- 
trophe means turning away. (See p. 110, §17.) 

62. 'Twill glide o'er the waters. 

63. I'll meet thee in the dungeon's gloom. 

64. I saw Henry's table at the Mechanics' Institute. 

a. The apostrophe is used where more than one letter, 
sign, or symbol is meant ; as — 

65. In the word Mississippi ,,we find one m, four i's, four 

s's, and two p's. 

66. In 66 + 666 + 6-1-111, we find six 6's, two +'s, 
two ~'s, and four l's. 

67. Dot your i's, cross your t's, and make your A's, Vs, 
MPs, M's, and W's distinct. 



Peop. 13.] DITTO — HYPHEN — BRACE. 139 

19. The Ditto Marks or Double Commas ["] are 
two inverted commas placed under a word to show that 
it is to be repeated ; as — 

68. 10 mills make 1 cent. 
100 " " 1 dime. 

20. The Hyphen [-] is used to show that the parts, 
between which it stands, are to be taken together. 

69. The pastry-cook, the clock-maker, and the washer- 
woman were over-looking the affairs of the organ-grinder. 

a. The hyphen is used to show the composition and syl- 
labication of words ; as — 

70. Ab-sti-nence is compounded from Abs-tin-ence. 

h. The hyphen is used in its general sense to join the 
parts of a word found in two lines. (See a, above.) 

c. The hyphen is used to show peculiar pronunciations; 
as — 

71. " S-o-l-o-m-o-n is a perpetual calm; should the children, 
in their play, knock over the tea-table and its contents, he 
looks quietly up from his book, and drawls out, 'A-i-n-t y-o-u 
r-a-t-h-e-r n-o-i-s-y, c-h-i-1-d-r-e-n ?' " 

d. Sometimes the hyphen is use to distinguish words ; as — 

72. Recreation, amusement; re-creation, to make again.' 

73. White-pine boards must be made from the white pine ; 
but white pine-boards may be made from any kind of pine. 

74. Are these, White-pond water-lilies, or white pond- 
water lilies, or white-pond- water lilies ? 

2 1 . The Brace [ — — ] is used to join several dis- 
tinct parts to one common part ; as — 

75. 1,000 mills ) 10,000 mills ) ( |D. E. 

100 cents Vmake$l. 1,000 cents Vare-< IE. 
10 dimes ) 100 dimes ) ( $10. 

The principle of contraction, by which we use the brace in 
the tables, is the same as that, by which we contract com- 
pound sentences. 



140 ELLIPSIS — REFERENCE MARKS. [Book III. 

' ? n > clothed and fed the poor < woman. 
n * ( child. 

22. The Marks of Ellipsis [***], or [. . .] are 
used to show the omission of letters, words, sentences, 
paragraphs, chapters, &c. Ellipsis means taking' out. 

a. Usually when the marks are used to show an omission 
of letters, a point is used for each omitted letter, or we may 
use the dash. (See p. 136.) 

77. G****e W********n, I .... 1 P m, and B— n 

F— n. 

78. "Brutus. [Opens the letter, and reads."] 'Brutus, thou 
sleep' st ; awake, and see thyself. Shall Rome, fyc. Speak, 
strike, redress I Brutus, thou sleep* st ; awake,'**** [To him- 
self — ] Such instigations have often been dropped where I 
have took [taken] them up. Shall Borne, fyc. Thus must I 
piece it out; shall Rome stand under one man's awe? 
What! Kome?" 

23. Leaders [ ] are dotted lines, used to con- 
nect words at the beginning, with others at the end of 
the same lines. 

79. Punctuation page 129. 

Characters used at the end, &c " 130. 

" " " " breaks " 131. 

24. The Caret [A] is used in manuscript to show 
the place of omitted words. Caret means it wants. 

80. %y /mfa /tnia /note' ?/MC€t/ '. 

25. Fourth. The Characters, used for reference, 
are the Emphasis-Marks, the Division-Marks, and what 
are usually called the Reference-Marks. 

96. The Emphasis-Marks are the Hand or Index 
[8®*]> the Asterism or Stars [*/], and the Nota 



Paor. 13.] DIVISION AND REFERENCE MARKS. 141 

Bene [N.B.]. They arc used to direct, or to refer the 
reader to some special paragraphs. 

Tho term, Emphasis, as here used, is improperly applied. Theso 
signs have nothing to do with emphatic words, as described in proposi- 
tion twelfth. 

81. gJT For sale, at a Bargain — All my real estate. 

82. *** "A clergyman, whose sands, of life have nearly 
run out." 

27. The Division-Marks are the Paragraph [*[[] 
and the Section [§] . They enable us to refer to dif- 
ferent parts of a book. Formerly both were used much 
more than at present. 

a. Paragraph means written alongside, and was applied to 
a title, placed in the margin to distinguish paragraphs, before 
they were written separately, as now. 

83. " 1[ Avoid all needless repetitions of the same Repetition. 
thing in different parts of the discourse. % Avoid all need- 
less prolixity in one part to the neglect, or too rapid Prolixity. 
disposal of, perhaps, more important parts. % Avoid multi- 
plying explications where there is no difficulty, nor Expiica- 
darkness, nor danger of mistake." 

b. Section means cut off. The section includes one, or 
more paragraphs, when they pertain to the same part. The 
sections in this work are shown by the bold-faced figures, 
1 9 2 9 3 9 &c. ; the examples and remarks are the para- 
graphs. 

28. The "Reference-Marks" are used to refer the 
reader to a note in the side, or at the foot of a page. 

a. When only a few notes are given we use the following 
six signs in the order, in which they are here given ; — 



1. Asterisk, or Star * 

2. Obelisk, or Dagger t 

3. Double Dagger \ 



4. Section § 

5. Parallels II 

6. Paragraph If 

b. When more than six references are required, some 
double, or treble those given above ; as, **, ftt> &c. 



142 ACCENT. [Book HI. 

c. The simplest and best Reference-Marks are small let- 
ters or figures, called Superiors, because they are placed 
above the line ; thus, The governor of Virginia, Dinwiddie 1 , 
— When the Superiors are used, the first reference of each 
page, or chapter, should begin with a, or 1. 

29. Fifth. The Characters, used in pronunciation, 
are the Accent-Marks, the Quantity-Marks, the Diaere- 
sis, and the Cedilla. 

3®. The Accent-Marks are used to show that a 
peculiar stress of the voice is to be given to the syl- 
lables, over which they are placed. They are the 
Acute, the Grave, and the Circumflex. 

3 1 . The Acute Accent ['] denotes a rising inflec- 
tion of the voice ; as, an'archy, antip'athy, anticipa'- 
tion. 

a. In reading, the Acute Accent at the end of a clause, 
shows that the voice rises. 

84. See, who comes here 7 ? My countryman 7 — but yet I 
know him not'. Horatio, or I do forget myself/ 

32. The Grave Accent [ N ] denotes the falling in- 
flection ; as, an/archy N , antip'athy \ 

85. On Linden, when the sun was low s , 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow N , 
And dark as winter was the flow 

Of Iser rolling rapidly\ 

a. The Grave Accent is sometimes placed over e in the 
end of a word, to show that it must be pronounced ; as — 

86. Beloved, these things write I to you. 

33. The Circumflex Accent [ A ] denotes an upward 
followed by a downward inflection of the voice ; Pare- 
well, a long farewell, to all my greatness. 

87. Eternity, thou pleasing, dreadful thought. 



Prop. 13.] QUANTITY — DLERESIS. 143 

a. Sometimes the circumflex is used to distinguish a pecul- 
iar sound of the vowel, over which it is placed, as in fall, 
full, &c. 

34. The accent is sometimes used to distinguish 
words having like parts; as — 

88. The indorser, either directly, or indirectly, shall pay to 
the indorsee. This is so far from being injustice, that it is 
real justice. 

35. The Marks of Quantity are used to show the 
length of the vowel sounds. They are the Long^ the 
Shorty and the Doubtful. 

36. The Long Mark, or Macron ["] is placed over 
a long vowel, as in Fate, me, pine, no, tube. 

37. The Short Mark or Breve [ w ] is placed over a 
short vowel, as in fat, met, pin, n5t, tub. 

38. The Doubtful Mark [ c ] is placed over a vowel, 
which may be long, or short, as in wind. 

39. The Diaeresis [••] is placed over the latter of 
two adjoining vowels, to show that it does not form a 
diphthong with the former, as in zoology, aerial. 

40. The Cedilla [,] is a mark used in French 
words under the letter c before a, or o to give it the 
sound of s, as in fapade. 

Should the teacher desire to exercise the class in punctuation, let 
some one read a passage aloud to be written and punctuated by the pu- 
pils, then let these exercises be examined very carefully and the neces- 
sary comments be made. Do not assume that all the punctuations, 
found in the books, are correct. Indeed, no supposition could be more 
absurd than this ; since the most of writers leave the punctuation to the 
printer, or " compositor," as the type-setter is technically called. There- 
fore, whatever book is used, examine it, as to its punctuation, as well 
as the pupils' exercises. 

The teacher should be provided with a copy of "Wilson's Treatise 
on Punctuation" which, in our judgment, is the best work on this sub- 
ject, yet published. 



144 CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. [Book m. 



PROPOSITION FOURTEENTH. . 

1 . Words may be Classified in three ways ; First, ac- 
cording to Formation ; Second, according to Syllabica- 
tion; and Third, according to Origin. (See p. 89, §1.) 

2. First. According to Formation, Words are either 
Simple, or Compound. 

3. A Simple Word is a single, or uncompounded 
word; as, man, horse, kind, &c. 

4. A Compound Word consists of two, or more 
simple words united ; as, mankind, self-conceit. 

a. Usually, when only one of the simples, forming a com- 
pound word, is accented, the simples are written as one word ; 
as, mankind, horseman. 

b. When both of the simples are accented, they are joined 
by the hyphen ; as, fish-house, laughter-loving. 

5. Second. According to Syllabication, words are 
Monosyllabic, or Polysyllabic. 

6. A Monosyllabic word has only one syllable; as, 
man, brute, tree, wood, &c. 

7. A Polysyllabic word has two, or more syllables; 
as, ev-er, what-ev-er, be-nig-ni-ty, &c. 

8. Polysyllabic words are divided into the Dissyl- 
labic, or two syllables ; Trisyllabic, or three syllables ; 
Tetrasyllabic, or four syllables ; Pentasyllable, or five 
syllables ; Hexasyllabic, or six syllables ; Heptasyllab- 
ic, or seven syllables ; Octasyllabic, or eight syllables ; 
Novesyllabic, or nine syllables ; &c. 

Usually, words of two syllables are called Dissyllables ; 
of three syllables, Trisyllables ; of four, Tetrasyllables ; and 
of more than four, Polysyllables ; but this is so unscientific 



Prof. 14.] SYLLABICATION. 145 

(see p. 69, §26), that we prefer to classify as above. The 
practical difference of the two systems is this ; by the usual 
method, nev-er is a dissyllable ; by ours, it is a polysyllabic 
dissyllable. In the former mode, the kinds can be named 
only by saying, Dis-, Tris-, Tetra-, and Polysyllables ; in our 
mode, they can be named by simply saying Polysyllables. 
The absurdity of the prevailing mode of classifying words in 
regard to syllables is the same, as if we classified Nouns into 
Singular, Dual (two), Trial (three), Tetral (four), and Plu- 
ral, instead of our present simple mode, the Singular and Plu- 
ral. (See p. 69.) 

9. A Syllable is so much of a word as can be 
sounded, or spoken at once. It may contain a single 
letter, or several letters, or a whole word ; as, a ship, 
a-bate, O-ri-no-co, &c. 

The word syllable signifies flowing, or gliding together. 

10. The Last Syllable of a word is called its Final, 
or Ultimate syllable; as, the syllable ly, in lovely, 
patient/y, &c. 

a. The syllable next to the final is called the Penultimate* 
or Penult ; as, tient in patiently. 

b. The syllable, before the penult, is called the Ante-penult, 
as, to in totally. 

c. The syllable before the antepenult, is called the Pre- 
antepenult ; as, pro in pro-pri-e-ty. 

d. The remaining syllables are named by prefixing pre 
and ante alternately ; as, Ante-pre-antepcnult, Pre-ante-pre- 
antepenult, &c. The latter are seldom used. 

e. Sometimes the syllables are designated by numbering 
them from the left hand ; First, Second, Third, &c. 

/. Sometimes syllables are designated as the accented, the 
partially accented, and the unaccented ; as, in-de-pend'-ence. 

" 7 



146 ORIGIN OF WORDS. [Book HI. 

1 1 . tfhird. According to Origin, Words are either 
Primitive, or Derivative. 

IS. A Primitive, or Root word, is a word in its 

first or simplest form ; as, man, good, love. 

13. A Derivative is a word taken or derived from 
another word, which is called its root ; as, man/y from 
the root, man ; unkind from kind, &c. 

Not only do we speak of words as derived from other 
words, but we often speak of words as derived from other 
languages, by which we mean that the words in question were 
used in some other language before they were used in ours. 

This brings us to the Origin of the English Language. 



THE ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The English Language, in its present form, is compara- 
tively of modern date; having been derived from several 
other languages, whose origin is lost in antiquity. It is 
probable, however, that they had a common origin ; that is, 
are varieties or dialects of one Primitive Language. 

Indeed, we know this to be true, because it is distinctly 
so stated by the sacred historian, and also a sufficient reason 
is given for destroying that sameness of speech in the ac- 
count of the confusion of tongues at the tower of Babel. 
The sameness or similarities existing between the different 
languages and the fact that all of them point toward "the 
cradle of the human race" as their origin are the results, 
which must naturally have followed the causes stated in the 
biblical narration. Those varieties, with which we are di- 
rectly concerned in tracing the origin of the English Lan- 
guage, are the Celtic, the Gothic, and the Greek. 

Some knowledge of that portion of the history of these 
languages, especially of that describing the sentential forms, 



Prop. U.] CELTIC — GOTHIC. 147 

and the kinds of words, which each contributed to assist in 
the formation of the English, is necessary for the student be- 
fore beginning the study of those analyses, which follow this 
history. 

«. The Celtic Language was used by the people of Britain 
at the time of its invasion by the Romans under Julius Cae- 
sar, which took place in the fifty-fifth year before the Chris- 
tian era. It is still used in some parts of Wales, Scotland, 
Ireland, and in Brittany or Bretagne. From it also the most 
of the languages in the Western and South-western parts of 
Europe are derived. s 

The Celtic language has contributed to the English; — 
First. Some names of Persons and Places; as, Cobb, Jones, &c. 

Thames, Kent, &c., and names beginning with Mc, Fitz., &c. 

Second. Some names of Common things; as, bran, darn, flannel, 

gruel, tartan, plaid, &c. 

Beside the ordinary purposes of language, the Celtic was 
used in oratory and in poetry. Cassar says that their Druids 
or priests knew how to write, but used it only as a means 
of concealing knowledge. This may have formed another 
item in the Celtic contribution to the English ; otherwise the 
English has produced its own Druids. 

The only specimens of Celtic eloquence occurring before the 
Saxon invasion, which have reached us, are the harangues of 
Queen Boadicea, of Carac / tacus, and of Galga'cus, a chieftain 
conquered by the Roman general, Agricola, in the seventy- 
eighth year of the Christian era. 

The Romans taught the Britains the arts of writing, agri- 
culture, and architecture, and thus paved the way for the in- 
troduction of Christianity. The only monuments of this in- 
vasion are a few geographical names ; as, Lincoln, Leicester, 
&c. coin signifies colony ; cester, a camp. 

b. The Gothic is supposed to have originated in Asia, and 
to have been brought into Europe by the barbarous tribes, 
who overran and occupied the country. It is not now used 
in its primitive form, but exists in several varieties or dia- 



148 ANGLO-SAXON. [Book III. 

lects, of which the principal are the Teutonic or Germanic, 
and the Scandinavian. 

The Teutonic or Germanic dialect was used by the tribes 
inhabiting Germany, among the most powerful of whom were 
the Saxons and the Angles, who came into Britain in the 
four hundred and fiftieth year of the Christian era, and, ex- 
terminating a large portion of the native Celts, drove the re- 
mainder into the mountains of Wales and Scotland. The 
Angles gave their name to the conquered portion, Angleland, 
which was afterward modified to England; the Gothic dialect 
— the Germanic or Teutonic — which both people had helped 
to introduce, was called the Anglo-Saxon Language. 

The Anglo-Saxon contributed to the English language; — 

First. Its modes of constructing sentences, and its peculiar idioms. 

Second. About five eighths of all the words now used in the English 
language. Twenty-three thousand in about forty thousand. They are 
short, easily understood, and have but few changes of form. 

Third. The greater part of our grammatical forms. 

Fourth. "It is the language of business ; of the counting-house, the 
shop, the market, the street, the farm ; and — however, miserable the 
man who is fond of philosophy, or abstract science, might be, if he had 
no other vocabulary but this — - we must recollect that language was 
made not for the few, but the many ; and that portion of it which en- 
ables the bulk of mankind to express their wants and to transact their 
affairs, must be considered of at least as much importance to the gen- 
eral happiness, as that, which serves the purpose of philosophical sci- 
ence." 

Fifth. Almost all our common names of material objects and of their 
properties ; as the names of — 

Terrestrial Objects ; Land, hill, dale, wood, water, sea, stream, &c. 

Natural Phenomena; Heat, cold, frost, light, lightning, thunder, 
rain, hail, snow, sleet, &c. 

The Heavenly Bodies; Sun, moon, stars. 

The Elements ; Earth, fire, water. [Air is Latin. 

The Seasons ; Winter, spring, summer. [Autumn is Latin. 

The Natural Divisions of Time ; Year, month, week, day [h., min., 
sec, Lat.], morning, sunrise, midday, noon, evening, sunset, twilight, 
night, midnight. 



Prop. 14.] ANGLO-SAXON. 149 

Sixth. " It is the language of our national proverbs, in which so much 
of the practical wisdom of a nation resides, and which constitute tho 
inanual.of 'hobnailed* philosophy." 

Seventh. It furnishes the strongest terms, in which to express tho 
passions, anger, contempt, rage, &c. ; and also to express satire, in- 
vective, wit, humor, &c. 

Eighth. It gives us names for the social relations ; as, father (feeder), 
mother (producer), husband (provider), wife (weaver), child, son (hope), 
daughter (grace), brother (protector), sister (kind), kindred, friends. 

Ninth. It names those objects, which suggest the social relations; 
as, home, roof, rooftree, fireside, hearth, &c. 

Tenth. It names the emotions or feelings ; as, love, anger, hope, fear, 
sorrow, shame, guilt, &c. 

Eleventh. It names the outward signs of the emotions or feelings ; as, 
the smile of love, the frown of anger, the brightness of hope, the shyness 
of fear, the tear of sorrow, the blush of shame, the gloom of guilt, &c. 

Twelfth. It is the language of the Bible. To the Bible we are mainly 
indebted for the preservation and development of the Anglo-Saxon ; 
and to the Anglo-Saxon we are indebted for the simple and familiar 
dress of the truths of the Bible. By a careful computation, it has been 
found that twenty-eight twenty-ninths [f |] of all the words in the 
Bible are of Saxon origin ;* hence, the Bible, apart from its spiritual 
teachings, is still the best book of study for the student, who would 
learn the strongest and simplest language ever spoken, or written; 
and we should be slow to admit those modern innovations, which mili- 
tate against its authority as a standard of the Anglo-Saxon Language. 

The Saxons were taught Christianity by the Komans, and 
from these they also learned the art of writing. They 
adopted the Latin alphabet, to which they added two new 
characters ; one to represent th, and the other, w. The intro- 
duction of letters awakened a zeal for learning, and laid the 
foundation of what is now known as the " Saxon Literature." 
It consisted of poetry, fictitious narrative, histories or chroni- 
cles, religious writings, and translations from the Latin 
authors, and from the Sacred Scriptures. 

* Next to the Bible, in the use of Saxon words, are the writings of 
Dean Swift, eight ninths being Saxon ; Milton, seven eighths ; Shak- 
epeare, five sixths ; Addison and Thomson, four fifths ; Johnson, three 
fourths ; Pope and Hume, two thirds. 



150 SCANDINAVIAN — GREEK. [Book ni. 

At first, the Saxon writers wrote in the Latin; among these 
are Gildas, Aldhelm, and the Venerable Bede. Afterward 
they began to use the Saxon ; among the first of these were 
the " elder" and the " second Caedmon" 

Among the Saxon kings, Alfred the Great was conspicuous 
for his wisdom, knowledge, and piety ; and also for his zeal 
in providing his subjects with the means of scientific and re- 
ligious instruction. He established the present University at 
Oxford. Alfred occupied the throne for a period of twenty- 
eight years ; from 872 to 900, A.D. 

The Saxon language continued to be used in England un- 
til the Norman Conquest in 1066. 

The Scandinavian dialect of the Gothic (see p. 148) was 
used by the tribes occupying the Scandinavian Peninsula, 
now comprising Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. These peo- 
ple, who are known in history as the Horsemen, or Danes, came . 
into England in the year 1017, and conquering the Saxons, 
whom they found there, held possession for twenty-four years, 
or until 1041. As their language was only another dialect 
of the Saxon, they did not change the latter, except by ad- 
ding a few words peculiar to their own dialect ; but even these 
are now generally known as a part of the Saxon Language. 

The ultimate effect, of which the Danish incursion was the 
first and principal cause, was to bring in the Normans and 
with these the Norman French, which took place in 1066, as 
we have said above. How this came to pass, we will de- 
scribe briefly in the history of the Greek elements of the 
English language. 

c. The Greek Language was brought into Europe by the 
immigration from Asia of the people using it ; and was for a 
long time the language of eloquence, poetry, history, and 
also of a commercial, a warlike, and a victorious people. 
These causes served to make it known and to give it currency 
among the surrounding nations ; and especially was it imi- 
tated by the Romans both in its idioms and in the Grammat- 
ical forms of its words. This prevailed to such a degree 
that the Roman language — originally a mixture of the 



Proi\ 14.] LATIN — NORMAN — FRENCH. 151 

Celtic, and of the Sabine and the Latin tongues, from the 
last of which it took its name — came to be only a dialect 
of the Greek. 

The Romans were decidedly a warlike people, and wher- 
ever they carried their arms they also carried their lan- 
guage ; which, as much as was possible on their part, they 
caused the conquered nations to adopt. At the time he en- 
tered Britain, Caesar was engaged in subjugating Gaul 
[France], and that part of Germany, which was afterward 
known as Normandy. The Romans not only succeeded in 
conquering these people, but also in bringing them to adopt 
so large a number of Latin idioms and words, as to lay the 
foundation of that change in the Gallic language — the Cel- 
tic — which finally resulted in the modern French; and to 
change the Norman language — the Gothic — into that which 
was afterward known as the Norman French. Things were 
in this condition, when in 1066, William, Duke of Norman- 
dy, invaded England and ascended the throne as William L, 
the Conqueror. 

In order to wean the people from their Saxon customs and 
laws, William caused the Norman French to be used as the 
language of the Court, and ordered that all the laws should 
be written in it, and that all law-suits, proceedings, and peti- 
tions, should be presented in it. By this act, he compelled 
all the Saxons holding property to become familiar with the 
Norman, as the language of business ; and these Saxons soon 
learned it. In addition to this, William appointed Normans 
to all offices of honor and trust in his government, filling the 
menial offices with Saxons. This course not only compelled 
all aspirants for court-favors to become familiar with the Nor- 
man, but rendered its use a mark of superiority in wealth, 
or in station, or in both ; while it made the Saxon a sign of 
servitude. Beside all this, the Norman, being the language 
of the Court, became the fashionable language, as it really 
had been ever since the accession of Edward the Confessor, 
who had learned it while a refugee in Normandy, whither he 
had fled from England, in 1043, to escape from the Danes. 



152 SAXON — NORMAN — ENGLISH. [Book HI. 

"William also ordered that all the pupils in the Schools should 
be taught the Norman, to translate their Latin into it, and 
should be required to converse only in these languages, Thus 
we find power, wealth, position, business, fashion, and educa- 
tion, all arrayed against the Saxon; and yet it maintained 
its ground, because it had become the language of the senses 
and also of the heart. 

The sturdy, old Saxons clung to their native tongue, and 
for nearly a century the common people used a language al- 
most unknown to their rulers, while the language of the ru- 
lers was almost unknown to the common people. By de- 
grees, however, each began to learn and adopt certain parts 
of the others. The Saxon furnished its rich stores of sim- 
ple and expressive, but often harsh and blunt terms — well 
suited for business, and straightforward, outspoken statements 
of facts ; but lacking terms for the abstract, the scientific, 
and the imaginative ; the Norman furnished a rich store of 
smooth, polished, and refined terms — suitable for a refined 
and elevated social intercourse, for the abstract and the sci- 
entific ; and the extensive array of imaginative works, which 
it already possessed. These languages were naturally fitted. 
to be companions, and such they would have been, if no 
forcible means had been used to unite them. 

The interchange and adoption went forward, and in 1150 
we find the two sufficiently blended to form a distinct lan- 
guage, although evidently in a state of transition; hence, 
the form which it assumed from 1150 to 125Q has been called 
the Semi- Saxon. After this, it assumed those more definite 
characters, by which it is now known. The nobles and even 
the Norman kings had been compelled to master it in self-de- 
fence; and it has ever since been known as the English 
Language. Edward III., in the year 1362, ordered the Eng- 
lish to be used as the language of the Court, and as a substi- 
tute for the Norman in all legal proceedings and documents ; 
from such sources and conflicts the English language, the sim- 
plest and most philosophical ever used oy the human race, 
tad its origin. 



Prop. U.] GREEK — LATIN. 153 

The first work of any importance, written in the English 
language after its adoption by Edward III., was John Wick- 
liffe's translation of the Bible in 1383. 

We have already described one of the processes, by which 
the Greek, through the Latin and Norman, became an ele- 
ment of the English ; there are yet two other ways in which 
it also contributed ; the one through the Latin ; the other 
directly from itself. In this, as in the former case, we regard 
the Latin simply as a dialect of the Greek. 

The Romans during the time of the invasion gave names 
to certain places, which names were retained by the Saxons 
and subsequently became English. A second contribution 
was furnished by the introduction of Christianity, and with 
it the Latin, in which all the services of the Church were 
conducted until about the fifteenth century. " Even the lan- 
guage of Christian prayer was that of abolished paganism." 
This use of the Latin caused very many words to be adopted 
directly from it by the nations where it was so used ; as, pas- 
tor, minister, sermon, sanctuary ; and in short nearly all the 
terms pertaining to religious rites, have been adopted by the 
English. A third contribution was made about the beginning 
of the thirteenth century by a very general desire to study 
the Classics, as the Greek and Latin were then called. 
While this prevailed, the Latin was regarded as the only 
proper medium of thought. All learned discussions were 
conducted in it ; all scientific treatises were written in it ; and 
scholarship always implied a familiarity with it. If an author 
would have his productions read, he must write in it, for two 
reasons ; first, those who could read at all knew how to read 
the Latin ; second, those who could not read Latin could 
seldom read at all. 

The first check given to this strange practice was produced 
by the benevolent desire to enable every one to read the 
Sacred Scriptures in that language wherein he was born. 
This led to the translation of the Scriptures into the various 
dialects ; and thus, by making each a recorded language, fur- 
nished the means for its improvement and perpetuity. To 

7 * 



154 GREEK CONTRIBUTIONS. [Book IIL 

this cause, as has been stated already, we are indebted for 
the preservation and improvement of our own English ; and 
to this also are more nations indebted for the blessing of a 
recorded language than to all other causes combined. 

The Greek has contributed directly from itself a great 
number of scientific terms ; so large, indeed, that the shortest 
way in which to master the terms of any modern science is 
to begin with the study of the Greek itself. 

First. The Names of the Sciences ; These are usually formed by the 
Greek word naming the department, or kind, followed by — ology, signi- 
fying science or reason ; or by — ography, drawing, description ; or by 
— ometry, measure ; or by — onomy, law ; &c. ; as, Geology, from Ge, 
the earth, and ology ; Geography, from Ge, and ography ; Geometry, 
Ge, and ometry ; Astronomy, from Aster, a star, and onomy. 

Second. Names of Classes ; as, monosyllable, polysyllable, &c, en- 
dogens, growing within ; exogens, growing without. 

Third. Names of Species and Individuals. Acid, saccharine, oxygen. 

Neither the Saxons nor the Normans had made any con- 
siderable progress in classified science at the time of their 
uniting to form the English ; consequently neither furnished 
those terms, which subsequent scientific progress demanded, 
and which were already coined in the Greek. As was most 
natural, these were transferred from the Greek to the English 
and the idea, thus suggested, was carried into practice still 
farther, until we now have a most complete system of scien- 
tific names whose nominal and real definitions being the same 
are very easily learned and retained. True, it is both easy 
and usual for ignorance to decry their use ; but it is equally 
true, that it is easier to learn them, than, from the two great 
elements of the English, to furnish substitutes, which will 
not confound us by the number of different meanings, which 
each term must take. Now, the term itself advises us of its 
use ; as in the following examples, in which the words in 
small-capitals are Greek ; those in italics, Latin, and the rest 
are Saxon. 

1. Philosophy is a systematic arrangement of facts. 

2. Optics is the science of seeing and of light. 

3. Light always moves in straight lines. 



Feop. 14.] SAXON VERSUS GREEK. 155 

One important advantage, which is gained by drawing our 
scientific names from the Greek, is the fact, that by so doing, 
we have the same terms, which other nations use and thus 
are enabled to understand with ease and definiteness all de- 
scriptions of new objects, discoveries, processes, &c. 

We can not leave this subject without alluding to the 
practice of public speakers, who, with few exceptions, persist 
in using words of Greek origin instead of the simpler Saxon. 
By this practice they do, indeed, gain a more pleasing variety 
of sounds, but with a certainty of being less properly under- 
stood, if understood at all. The Saxon has less of what is 
pleasing in sound than the words derived directly from the 
Greek and Latin ; its chief excellence is in its simplicity and 
brevity ; hence, it becomes interesting only in proportion as 
it becomes the medium of thought ; and whoever, in an ap- 
peal to the feelings, sacrifices the plain, outspoken Saxon 
even for. the more refined and polished Norman, sacrifices 
sense to sound. We once heard a young speaker, who had 
imbibed this false estimate of the two classes of words, para- 
phrase the following beautiful and strong passage, " Hitherto 
shalt thou come, but no farther ; and here shall thy proud 
waves be stayed ;" thus, " Hitherto shalt thou come, but no 
farther ; and here shall thy tumultuous waves be restrained" 
Comment on the paraphrase is unnecessary. 

It may seem to be more polite to say, " It is surely a mis- 
statement of facts," than to say of the same, " It is a false- 
hood ;" yet the latter is the plainer truth. We shall farther 
discuss the difference of the two kinds of words in connec- 
tion with Style, 

Thus, have we traced the origin and growth of the Eng- 
lish language from its sources to the time, when it was 
adopted as the national language of Britain in 1362. .It may 
be considered as having secured its adoption, when Wick- 
liffe's translation of the Bible made its appearance in 1383, 
and to have commenced its career toward its own perfection 
and universal adoption when, in 1474, William Caxton in- 
troduced the first Printing Press into England. With these 



156 BOOT — PREFIX — SUFFIX. [Book IH. 

events the History of the Origin of the English Language 
closes. That of its subsequent improvements and achieve- 
ments remains to be told in its proper place, while we return 
to Derivative Words ; for the proper understanding of which, 
the history of the origin of this language has just been given. 



14*. Derivative words are considered as to their 
Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes. 

15. The Root is the Primitive word, from which 
the Derivative word is formed. It is sometimes called 
the Theme, or Basis, and remains unchanged except 
it be for euphony or agreeable sounds. 

10. The Prefix is a syllable, or word joined to the 
beginning of a Root, to affect, or vary its signification ; 
as, misspelled, spelled ivrong- ; retold, told again; al- 
lured, lured to, &o. 

17. The Suffix is a syllable, or word joined to the 
end of a Root to vary its signification. It is often 
called the Affix, or Termination; as, soulless, without 
a soul ; loved, did love ; peaches, more than one peach. 

Not only must the Prefix be placed before, and the Suffix 
placed after the Root, but each must be joined to the Root, 
This union distinguishes Prefixes and Suffixes from Adjuncts 
and Relators. 

18. English Derivative words and their parts are 
usually named from the language whence they are 
immediately derived; as, the Saxon, Latin, Greek, 
French, Spanish, Welsh, &c. Nearly all of them are 
comprised in those derived from the Saxon, the Latin, 
and the Greek. 

* For thirteen see p. 146. 



Prop. 14.] ROOTS CHANGED FOR EUPHONY. 157 

19. Sometimes the final letters of the primitive or 
root words are changed for the sake of Euphony, or 
for the sake of agreeable sound, and ease of speaking. 

First Change. Final e is dropped when a suffix beginning 
with a vowel is added; as — 



vc 


drive 


blue 


create 


globe 


vable 


driver 


bluish 


creator 


globule. 



Exception. Generally, before the suffixes able and ous, 
words ending in ge, retain the e ; those in ce, retain e before 
able, but change it into % before ous ; as — 

change outrage peace -grace 

changea&?e outrageous peaceaWe gracious. 

Second Change. ' Abridge, acknowledge, argue, awe, due, 
judge, lodge, and true, drop e before ful, ly, and sometimes 
before ment ; as — 

abridge awe due true judge 

abridgment awful (bity truly judgment. 

Third Change. Ie is changed into y before ing ; as — 

lie tie die underlie 

tying tying di/ing underlying. 

Fourth Change. E, preceded by c, s, or t, aspirated, or by 
v, becomes i before a suffix beginning with o ; as — 

grace erase create behave 

gracious evasion creation behavior. 

Fifth Change. Y, not after a vowel in its own syllable, is 
usually changed into i ; sometimes into e ; as — 

party j°Uy comely hearty pity 

parties jollmess comeliness heartiness piteous. 

Exception First. Lay, say, and pay, change y into i ; as — 

lay say pay 

laid said paid. 

Exception Second. Y before ing is never changed ; as — 

pily lay say pay 

pitying laying saying paying. 



158 



SAXON PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. [Book III. 



Fore — , before ; 
Mis — , wrong ; 
Mid — , middle of; 



not; 
no, not; 
without ; 



Sixth Change. A consonant, preceded by a single vowel, is 
doubled at the end of a monosyllable, or at the end of any 
word accented on its final syllable ; as — 
sad snap begin regret refer 

sadder snappish beginner regretting referring. 

Saxon Prefixes. 

Prefixes. Meanings. Examples. 

A — , at, in, on ; afar, at a distance ; abed, in bed ; afoot, on foot. 
Be — , to, on ; oestir, to stir ; befool, to fool ; oedrip, to drip on. 

Down-, below, under ; downright, right below ; aWn trodden. 
For — , away, not ; forgive, to give away ; forget, not to get. 

foretell, to tell before ; forewarn, to warn before. 

misspell, to spell wrong ; misstate, to state wrong. 

midday, middle of day : midship, middle of ship. 

neither, not either ; never, not ever ; none, not one. 

nothing, no thing ; nobody, not a bodtf . 

offset, set without ; offhand, without handling. 
at, against; onset, set at, or against ; onslaught, to dash against, 
more, beyond ; outbid, bid more ; outrun, run beyond. 
Over — , too great, above; overvalue, value too great; overflow, flow above. 
Un — , remove; (before an Aifirmer) unbar, remove a bar; wnbolt. 
Un — , not ; (before an Adjunct) tmbidden, not bidden; nnjust. 

Under-, less, below; underbid, bid less; undersheriff, below a sheriff. 
Up — , aloft, above ; uplift, lift aloft ; wpheave, heave above. 
With — ,from, against; withdraw, draw from; withstand, stand against. 

Saxon Suffixes. 

Suffixes. Meanings. Examples. 

— dom, state, dominion; freedom, state of being free; dukeoJow. 

— ED, 
— EN, 
— ER, 
— ERN, 
— ES, 
— ESS, 
— EST, 
— FUL, 
— HEAD, 
— HOOD, 



N-, 
No—, 
Off — , 
On—, 
Out — , 



—IE, 
— ING, 



did, condition ; healed, did heal ; ruinec?, condition of ruin. 
made of, is ; woolen, made of wool ; beaten, is beat. 
one who, more ; laugher, one who laughs ; louder, more loud. 
toward, of; northern, toward the north ; southern, of the — 
more than one ; foxes, more than one fox ; boxes, more than one- 
female ; tigress, female tiger ; songstress, female singer. 
most ; sweetest, most sweet ; broadest, most broad. 
abounding, full ; plentiful, abounding in plenty ; fearful, 
nature ; Godhead, nature of God. 
state ; knightnooc?, state of a knight ; manAooo*. 
young ; lassie, a young lass ; bairme, a young child. 
continuing, tending ; singing, continuing to sing ; sweetemna. 



Prop. 14.] SAXON SUFFIXES AND WORDS. 



159 



Suffixes. Meanings. Examples. 

— ish, like, belonging ; bluish, like blue ; Swedish. 

' — kin, young, small ; lamb&w, a young lamb ; firkin, a small cask. 

— ling, young, little ; duekling, a young duck ; lordling, a little lord. 

-like, ly, manner ; man/i&e, manty, in the manner of a man. 

— ness, condition, quality ; healthiness, condition of health. 

— ock, young, small ; bullock, a young bull ; hillock, a small hill. 

— ric, office ; bishopnc, office of bishop. 

— "s, -s', of; mountain's top, top of the mountain. 

— ship, state, office ; courtship, the state of courting ; consuls^/?. 

— some, being ; gladso??ie, being glad ; wearisome, being weary. 

— st, ~t, the one addressed; thou loves£, shal£; the one addressed, loves. 

— s, -th, the one of whom we speak ; loves, love^. 

— ster, one who ; songster, one who sings ; youngster, one who — 

— ward, toward; skyward, toward the sky; northward. , 

— wise, way ; weatherimse, way of the weather ; likewise. 

— y, little, place, possessing, dominion ; baby, a little babe ; granary, 

a place for grain ; cra%, possessing craft ; duc%, domin- 
ion of a duchess. 

The following Table of Saxon words is inserted to be taken 
as a basis for exercises in learning the Prefixes and Suffixes, 
and in analyzing the words. 

Take each word in the order of the Table, or miscellaneously, and 
if it be a Root, first tell what Prefixes may be used with it, and then 
what Suffixes, arid the effect of adding each ; thus — Bid is a primi- 
tive, or root-word ; with the prefix for, jforbid, it signifies bid away, 
that is, to refuse ; ?w/sbid, a wrong bid ; outbid, bid beyond ; overbid, bid 
above ; imbid, not bidden ; underbid, bid below. 

Now take bid with the Suffixes, as follows ; bidden, is bid; bidder, 
one who bids ; bidding, continuing to bid ; bid's, of 'a bid ; bids', of bids ; 
bids, does bid. 

Saxon Primitives and Derivatives. 



Abet 


unborn 


chick 


after 


box 


children 


ale 


boys 


uncleansed 


all 


bred 


cold 


answer 


breeding 


become 


army 


broad 


darkly 


forbearing 


brothers 


darling 


bind 


recalled 


daughter 


blacking 


cash 


dawn 


blithe 


catlike 


dishes 



unearthly 


ground 


east 


grown 


endless 


harder 


unfatted 


heaven 


fatherly 


withheld 


free 


uphold 


befriended 


home 


frosty 


hopeless 


gray 


husband 


greet 


idleness 



160 


SAXON WORDS — LATIN PREFIX] 


iron 


remove 


priest 


misspeak 


jerked 


narrower 


quake 


springlike 


keg 


benighted 


queenlike 


star 


kernels 


noon 


quick 


stoutest 


unkingly 


noseless 


rails 


tame 


kneel 


benumb 


rain 


tearless 


knotted 


oak 


rakish 


bethink 


unladylike 


oath 


overridden 


thralldom 


lee 


oats 


rising 


thunder 


alight 


often 


roar 


tins 


lioness 


orchard 


roguish 


toilsome 


loft 


oven 


unroofed 


untrue 


maiden 


unowned 


round 


mistrusted 


mis mated 


pathless 


safer 


twist 


month 


peace 


beseemeth 


unuttered 


mornings 


pearl-like 


shalt 


vied 


mostly 


pebble 


sister 


voyager 


mother. 


pipes 


oversorrowful waggish 



[Book in, 



want 

was 

wasp 

overwatched 

weight 

outwork 

womanhood 

wretchedness 

yard 

yawning 

year 

yellowish 

unyeo manlike 

unyielding 

yoke 

your 

youngster 

youthful. 



Latin Prefixes. 

Prefixes. Meanings. Examples. 

A-, ab-, abs-, away, from; aoject, castaway; avert, turn from. 
Ad-, to, for ; advert, turn to ; aajoin, join to. 

Special Joules for Ad. 

a. Ad, before s, followed by c, or p, loses d, and also in 
avenue and avow ; as — 

acfecribe aa'spire aaVenue aaVow 

ascribe aspire avenue avow. 

0. The d in ad, before c,f, g, I, n, p, r, s, and t 9 is changed 
into the same ; as — 

accept aeffix aggrieve adlnvQ aa*nul 

accept a/fix aggrieve allure awnul. 

appear aefrear assist attract 

appear arrear assist attract. 

Am-, amb-, around, about; amputate, cut around; ambition, going about. 
Ante-, before ; antedate, date before ; antemeridian. 

Circum-, about, around; c/rcwmpolar, about the pole ; circumnavigate. 
Cis-, on this side; cisalpine, on this side the Alps. 

Con-, for cum-, with, together ; contend, strive with ; contribute. 

Special Rules for Con. 

a. Con, before a vowel, or h, drops the n; as, conexist, 
coexist; ccmhere, cohere. 



Prop. 14.] LATIN PREFIXES. 161 

b. Con, before n, in a few words, is changed into cog ; as — 

-connaje corcnative comnomen co?inizant 

connate coo/native cognomen cognizant. 

c. The n in con, before /, m, and r, is changed into the 
same; as — 

colleague commix commotion correspond 

colleague commix commotion correspond. 

d. The n in con before b and p, is changed into m ; as — 
combine combustive compassion compress 
combine combustive compassion compress. 

e. Con sometimes drops n before the following letters, b,f 
g,j, I, p, r, s, t, and w ; as — 

Cb-bishop, co-factor, cogent, co-juror, co-laborer, co-plant, co-relation, 
cosine, cotangent, co-worker. 

Contra-, against; comZraposition, position against; controvert. 
Counter-, against ; cowmterbalance, balance against, or opposite. 
De-, down, from; descent, to climb down ; dethrone, from the throne. 

Dis-, away, not, off; distract, to draw away ; dishonest, not honest. 
Special Rules for Dis. 

a. Dis always drops s before v, and frequently before other 
letters; as — 

di'svide disvert disminish dislute distress 

divide divert diminish dilute digress. 

b. Dis, before /, is changed into dif; diffuse for defuse. 
Ex-, out ; expel, to drive out ; export, to carry out. 

Special Rules for Ex. 

a. Ex drops x before b, d, g,j, I, m, n, r, and v ; as — • 

exbuilition exduce exgress exject exlude exmotion, &c. 
ebullition educe egress eject elude emotion. 

b. Ex, before c, I, and s, is sometimes changed into ec ; as, 

eccentric eclectic ecstasy eclogue 

eccentric eclectic ecstasy eclogue. 

c. Ex, before f is changed into ef, except in the word ex- 
foliate ; as, efface, for efface ; e/Tect, for effect. 

Extra-, beyond ; extrajudicial, beyond a legal court. 



162 LATIN PREFIXES. [Book in. 

In-, (before an act) in, upon ; inhabit, to dwell in; invoke, to call upon. 
In-, (before an adjunct) not ; incautious, not cautious ; inapt, not apt. 

Special Rules for In. 

a. The n, before I and r, is changed into the same ; as — - 
inlumine inliberal inruption inreligion 
i71umine illiberal irruption irreligion. 

b. In, before m and p, is changed into im ; as — 
inmerse inport inmoral inperfect 
immerse • import immoral imperfect. 

Inter-, among, between ; intermingle, mingle among ; interpose, place — 
Intro-, within ; introduce, lead within ; intromit, send within. 

Ob-, against, in the way ; obtrude, thrust against ; o&ject, cast in the way. 

Special Rule for Ob. 

a. Ob, before c, f, and p, changes b into the same ; as — 
oocur o6fend oopress occasion oopose 

occur offend, oppress occasion oppose. 

Per-, through ; perceive, look through ; perennial, through the year. 
Post-, after ; postmeridian, after noon ; postpone, put after. 
Pre-, before ; predict, tell before ; prelude, before the play. 
Preter-, more, past ; preternatural, more than natural ; preterit, gone — 
Re-, again, back ; return, turn again ; recline, lean back. 
Retro-, back ; retrospect, looking back ; retrovert, turn back. 
Se-, apart, away ;, secede, go apart ; seduce, lead away. 
Sin-, sine-, without ; sincere, without wax ; sinecure, without care. 

a. Simple, for sineple, without folds. 
Sub-, after, under ; subjunctive, joined after ; subscribe, written under. 
Special Rules for Sub. 

a. The b in sub, before f, is changed into f, and sometimes 
before c and p, is changed into these letters ; as — 

su&fer su&flx su&ceed suoport su&press 

suffer suffix succeed support suppress. 

b, Sub, in a few words, before c, p, s, t, becomes sus ; as — 
su&ceptible ( suopend suospect suotaiu 
susceptible suspend suspect sustain. 

Subter-, beneath ; subterfuge, fleeing beneath. 

Super-, over, upon ; superadd, oi?eradd ; superscribe, write upon. 

Sur-, over, upon ; surcharge, overcharge ; surface, upon the face. 



Prop. 14.] LATIN SUFFIXES. 163 

Trans-, over, change ; transport, carry over ; trans-pose, change place. 

a. Trans, is three times used as tra, and once as tres ; as, 
tfraduce, tradition, traject, trespass. 
Ultra-, beyond ; ultraist, one who is beyond; w^ramarine, beyond the — 

Latin Suffixes. 

Suffixes. Meanings. Examples. 

— AC, pertaining to ; cardiac, pertaining to the heart. 

— aceous, having; herbaceous, having herbs. 

— acy, being, office ; accuracy, being accurate ; magistracy, office of a — 

— age, pertaining to ; porterage pertaining to a porter. 

— al, pertaining to ; personal, pertaining to the person. 

— an, -ian, pertaining to, one who ; sylvan, pertaining to the woods ; 
Christian, pertaining to Christ, one who believes in Christ. 

— ance, ancy, state of being ; constancy, state of being constant. 

—ant, one who, -ing ; servant, one who serves ; pleasant, pleasiwa. 

— ar, pertaining to, having, one who ; solar, pertaining to the sun ; mus- 
cular, having muscles ; scholar, one who has studied. 

— ard, one who ; laggard, one who waits. 

— ary, one who, pertaining to ; adversary, one who is adverse : military, 
pertaining to militia. 

— ate, having, who ; fortunate, having fortune ; primate, who is first. 

— ate, to make, give, take, put ; alienate, to make an alien ; animate, 
give life ; appropriate, take to one's self; dislocate, put out of place. 

« — ble, may be, worthy ; curable, may be cured ; respectaWe, worthy of — 

— CLE, little, small ; canticle, a little song ; icicle, a small stick of ice. 

— ee, one who, to whom ; guarantee, one who guarantees ; donee, to whom 
anything is given. 

— eer, one who ; muleteer, one who drives mules. 

— ence, -ency, condition, -ing ; cadence, falling; innocency, condition 
of innocence. 

— ent, one that, -ing ; student, one that studies ; confident, being sure. 

— escence, -escent, growing ; convalescence, convalescent, growing well. 

— FY, to make ; clarify, to make clear ; deify, to make a god. 

— IC, -ical, like, pertaining to ; angelic, like an angel ; astronomical, 
pertaining to the stars. • 

— ice, one who, being, thing, place ; novice, one who is new ;« justice, be- 
ing just ; notice, thing that makes known ; office, place of business. 

— ics, science, art of; mathematics, science of quantity; calisthenics, 
art of exercise. 

— ID, being, -ing ; torpid, being dull ; vivid, living. 



164 LATIN SUFFIXES. [Book HI. 

Suffixes. Meanings. Examples. 

— ile, belonging to, may be ; juvem/e, belonging to youth ; fragile, may 
be broken. 

— ine, belonging to, like ; marine, belonging to the sea ; infantine, like an 
infant. 

— ion, act of, state of being, -ing ; conflagration, act of burning ; per- 
fection, state of being perfect ; election, choosing. 

— ise, -ize, make, give ; idealize, make ideas ; systematize, give system, 

— ish, to make; publish, to make public. (See same in Saxon.) 

— ism, state of being, idiom, doctrine; heroism, state of beings, hero; 
anglicism, English idiom ; Judaism, doctrine of the Jews. 

— ist, one ivho ; theorist, one who forms theories ; artist, one who prac- 
tises an art. 

— ite, one who ; favorite, one who is favored. 

— itt, -tt, state of being ; humid%, state of being moist ; novelty, state 
of being new. 

— ive, one who, capable of, -ing ; fugitive, one who flies ; curative, ca- 
pable of curing ; passive, receiving. 

— ment, state of being, act of, thing that ; confinement, state of being con- 
fined ; encouragement, act of encouraging ; statement, thing that 
is stated. 

— mony, state of being, what; sanctimony, state of being sacred; testi- 
mony, what is testified. 

— nd, to be; minuenoJ, to be lessened; multiplicand, to be multiplied. 

— on, one who; testator, one who makes a will ; creator, one who creates. 

— out, place where, that which, who, pertaining to, -ing ; armory, place 
where arms are kept ; memory, that which remembers ; directory, 
those who direct ; consolato?*y, pertaining to consolation ; prohibit- 
ory, prohibiting. 

— ose, full of; verbose, full of words ; jocose, full of jokes. 

— ous, full of belonging to, consisting of, -ing ; humorous, full of humor ; 
igneous, belonging to fire ; timorous, fearing. 

— ry, being, art of, place where ; bravery, 6einy brave ; surgery, art of 
a surgeon ; fishery, place where fishes are caught. 

— tude, -ude, state of being ; solitude, state of being solitary. 

— ule, little ; globu/e, a little globe ; granule, a little grain. 

— ure, the thing, state of being, act of; picture, thing painted ; pleasure, 
state of being pleased; seizure, the act of seizing. 

— Y, state of being, -ing / modesty, state of being modest ; sympathy, 
sympathizing. 



Pkop. 14.] 



LATIN ROOTS. 



165 



Latin Roots. 

In the following list of Latin words, the root only, or the 
part preceding the hyphen, is translated ; as, in ago, ag means 
act, and o means L 

Roots not translated will suggest their own meanings ; as, 
act-um, an act ; angul-us, an angle. 

These Roots are to be used in the same manner as the 
Saxon Roots. (See p. 159.) 
clam-o 



cry 
claud-o 
claus-um 

shut 

clin-o 

lean 

corp-us 

body 

cred-o 

trust 

culp-a 

blame 

cur-a 

care 

don-urn 

9ft 
dormi-o 



dubi-us 

duc-o 

lead 

em-o 

buy 

ens 

being 

equ-us 

equal 

err-o 

fabul-a 

faci-es 

face 
{ faci-o 
\ fact-um 

make 

fsed-us 

league 

felix 

happy 

fend-o 

fer-o 



bear 

feri-o 

strike 

ferve-o 

grow hot 

finis 

end 

fix-us 

flect-o 

bend 

flig-o 

strike 

flu-o 

flow 

foli-um 

fort 

strong 
( frang-o 
( fract 

break 

fugi-o 

flee 

fund-o 

deep 
( genus 
( generis 

kind 

( gradi-or 
( gress-us 

by steps 

grati-a 

favor 

grav-is 

heavy 

grex 

flock 

habe-o 

hold 

haere-o 

stick 

hal-o 



breathe 


lu-o 


humus 


wash 


ground 


mag-nus 


imper-o 


great 


imperative 


{ man-us 
( main 


ira 


ire 


hand 


( jaci-o 
|jact 


mar-e 


sea 


throw 


mater 


judic-o 


mother 


judge 


mem-or 


jug-um 


mindful 


joke 


mensur-a 


( jung-o 
{ junct 


measure 


merc-or 


join 


trade 


jur-o 


merg-o 


swear 


plunge 


jus 


minu-o 


law 


lessen 


lat-um 


( mitto 
\ miss 


carry 


leg-o, lect 


send 


choose 


mons 


lev-o, levat 


mountain 


lift 


monstr-o 


lig-o 


show 


bind 


( move-o 
( mot 


lingu-a 


tongue 


mult-us 


liter-a 


many 


letter 


j nect-o 
| nex-um 


loc-us 


place 


tie 


loqu-or 


( neg-o 
\ negat-um 


speak 


lud-o 


deny 


play 


( neuter 
( neutr-um 


lumen 


light 


neither 



166 



LATIN ROOTS — GREEK PREFIXES. [Book III. 



nov-us 

new 

numer-um 

number 
{ nunci-o 
( nunciat 

tell 

( ord-o 
( ordin-is 

order 
( or-o 
| orat-um 

speak 

par 

equal 

pars, part-is 
{ pell-o 
( puls-um 

drive 
( pend-eo 
( pens-um 



hang, deal 


scans-um 


( st-o 
} stat-um 


draw 


ped-is 


9° 


tres, tri-a 


foot 


scio, sciens 


stand 


three 


( plic-o 
\ plicat-um 


knowing 


( stru-o 
| struct-um 


{ tue-or 
| tuit-us 


( scrib-o 
( script-um 


fold 


build 


see 


i pon-o 
I posit-um- 


write 


( temp-us 
( tempor-is 


( veh-o 
\ vect-um 


( sent-io 
1 sens-um 


put 


time 


carry 


( port-o 
( portat-um 


think 


( tend-o 
( tens-um 


( ven-io 
1 vent-um 


( sequ-or 
I secut-us 


carry 


stretch 


come 


{ pung-o 
{ punct-um 


follow 


( ten-eo 
( tent-um 


{ vert-o 
I vers-um 


simil-is 


point 


like 


hold 


turn 


quot 


( solv-o 
I solut-um 


termin-us 


( voc-o 
( vocat-um 


how many 


end 


rat-us 


loose 


terr-a 


call 


reason 


( spir-o 

/ spirat-um 


earth 


( volv-o 
( volut-um 


rect-us 


{ trah-o 


scand-o 


breathe 


1 tract-um 


roll. 



Greek Prefixes. 



Prefixes. Meanings. Examples. 

A-, an-, without, not ; atheist, without God ; anomaly, not like. 

Ambi-, amphi-, double ; amphibious, double lived. 

Ana-, back again ; analysis, tracing back again. 

Ant-, ante-, opposite ; antarctic, opposite the north ; antipathy. 

Aph-, apo-, from ; aphorism, separate from ; apostle, one sent from. 

Cat-, cata-, from side to side, down ; catechise, make sounds from 

side to side ; cataract, water- falling down. 
Di-, dia-, through, between ; cftameter, measure through. [people. 

En-, em-, in, among ; emphasis, in a stress of voice ; endemic, among the 
Epi-, upon ; epidemic, upon the people. 
Hyper-, over, .beyond ; hypercritical, over critical. 
Hypo-, under ; hypothesis, placed under. 
Meta-, beyond ; metaphysics, beyond nature. 

Para-, par-, beside, like ; parallel, beside another ; parody, like an ode. 

Peri-, about, around; perihelion, about the sun; perimeter, measure 

Sy-, Syn-, together ; synthesis, syntax, putting together. [around. 

Special Rules for Syn. 

a. Syn, before s, drops n ; as, system for system. 

b. The n in Syn, before I and m, is changed into the same ; 
as, in salable, salable ; synmetry, symmetry. 

c. The n in Syn, before b and p, is changed into m ; as, in 
synhol, symhol ; symphony, symphony. 



Prop. 14.] 



GREEK ROOTS. 



Greek Roots. 



167 



These Roots are to be used in the same manner as the 
Saxon and Latin Roots. (See pages 159, 165.) 



Acou-o 


chym-os 


heli-os 


neur-on 


pol-is 


hear 


juice 


sun 


nerve 


city 


agoge-us 


crat-os 


hemis 


od-os 


poly 


leader 


power 


half ■ 


road 


many 


allel-on 


crit-es 


hier-os 


oid-os 


psych-e 


one another 


judge 


sacred 


form, like 


spirit 


alpha 


cycl-us 


hom-os 


onom-a 


rhythm-03 


angel-lo 


circle 


equal 


name 


length 


anthrop-os 


deca 


hor-os 


orth-os 


schol-a 


man 


ten 


boundary 


right, true 


soph-ia 


arche 


dem-os 


hydor 


oxy-s 


wisdom 


chief 


people 


water 


sharp 


spher-a 


arct-os 


didasc-o 


idea 


( pas, pan 
( pant-os 


stas-i3 


bear 


teach 


idi-os 


stand 


arist-os 


diploma 


lab-o 


all 


stell-o 


noblest 


dis, di 


take 


pater 


send 


arithm-os 


two 


lip-o 


father 


stroph-e 


astr-on 


dynast-ia 


leave 


path-os 


turning 


star 


power 


lith-os 


feeling 


tact-os 


authent-eo 


ep-os 


stone 


pedi-a 
learning 


order 


aut-os 


word 


log-os 


techn-e 


one's self 


ethos 


reason 


( phan-o 
{ phen-o 


art 


bas-is 


moral science 


lys-is 


tel-os 


bibl-os 


eu 


loosing 


appear 


distance 


book 


well 


mathem-a 


pher-o 


the-os 


bi-os 


ge 


mechan-as 


carry 


God 


life 


earth 


mel-os 


phil-os 


thesis 


bol-eo 


genea 


song, poem 


lover 


ton-os 


throw 


birth 


metr-on 


phon-e 


sound 


botan-e 


gloss-a 


measure 


sound 


trop-os 


plant 


tongue 


mon-os 


phras-is 


turning 


{ charis 
| charit-os 


gon-ia 


one alone 


phrase 


typ-us 


angle 


mus-a 


phys-is 


type 


christ-os 


graph-o 


poem 


nature 


zo-on 


chron-os 


draw 


naus 


poie-o 


animal 


time 


gramma 


ship 


poem 





The foregoing lists embrace all the Prefixes and Suffixes, 
while only the principal definition of each is given, from 
which it will be easy to infer the variations in meaning ; thus, 
syn chronos would mean together-time, that is, same time. 

The roots given are mostly those that occur in the school- 
books ; thus, subtrahend, nd, to be ; trah, taken ; sub, away. 

Let each new term be carefully analyzed when its use is 
learned. (See p. 66.) 



168 



LATIN AND GREEK NUMERALS. [Book HI. 



20. In the different sciences the Latin and Greek 
Numerals are frequently used as Prefixes and some- 
times as Roots ; as — 



univalve monomial 


triune 


unity 


bivalve omomial 


combine 


quaterly 


trivalve trinomial 


decimal 


centennial. 


CARDINALS. 


ORDINALS. 


Latin. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Greek. 


1. Unus, one 


heis 


primus, fi? % st 


protos 


2. duo, two 


duo 


secundus, second 


deuteros 


3. tres, three, Arc. 


treis 


tertius, third, fyc. 


tritos 


4. quatuor 


tettares 


quartus 


tetartos 


5. quinque 


pente 


quintus 


pemptos 


6. sex 


hex 


sextus 


hektos 


7. septem 


hepta 


septimus 


hebdomos 


8. octo 


okto 


octavus 


ogdoos 


9. novem 


ennea 


nonus 


ennatos 


10. decern 


deka 


decimus 


dekatos 


11. undecim 


hendeka 


undecimus 


endekatos 


12. duodecim 


duodeka 


duodecimus. 


duodekatos. 


13. tredecim 


dekatreis 






14. quatuordecim 


dekatetares distributives. 


15. quindecim 


dekapente Singuli, one by one 


aplous 


16. sexdecim 


dekaex 


bini, two by two 


diplous 


17. septendecim 


dekaepta 


terni, three by three, 


frc. triplous 


18. octodecim 


dekaokto 


quaterni. 


tetraplous. 


19. novemdecim 


dekaennea 




20. viginti 


heikosi 


ADJUNCTIVES. 


30. triginta 


triakonti 


Semel, once 


monos, one 


100. centum 


hekaton 


bis, twice 


di-, half 


1000. mille. 


chilioi. 


ter, thrice, frc. 


tri— , third, & 



Translate the following words; units, hecatombs, septen- 
nary, tetrasyllabic, dual, decimal, duodecimal, septuagint, 
triplicate, quadrennal, tertiary, decade, octavo, quarto, secon- 
dary, hebdomadal, sextuple, quaternary, quintuple, biennial, 
12mo., 4to., 16mo., 8vo., duplicate. 



Pkop. 15.] LITERAL AND FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 169 



PROPOSITION FIFTEENTH. 

1 . Sentential Language, according to the manner 
in which it presents thoughts, is divided into Literal or 
Plain, and Figurative Language. 

2. Literal or Plain Language directly expresses the 
thought itself. It is the language of ordinary business 
statements, of common narrative, of the sciences, and 
of the highest passions and emotions. 

1. Ordinary Business. A sells B $500 worth of goods, pay- 
able at the end of six months. 

2. Common Narrative. The names of some of the largest 
trees, and the principal grains' have been received from the 
Saxons. Among these we may mention the oak, beech, ash, 
and maple. 

3. Strong Passion. " Banished from Rome ! What's ban- 
ished, but set free from daily contact of the things I loathe !" 

4. Strong Emotions. " I am Joseph ; doth my father yet 
live?" 

5. Emotion of Sublimity. God said, " let there be light ; 
and there was light." 

6. " He spoke, and it was done ; he commanded and it 
stood fast." 

3. Figurative Language expresses thoughts by com- 
paring, or associating them with other thoughts (see 
p. 50). It is the language of feeling, except in state- 
ments of the strongest passions and emotions ; hence, 
it is used in animated narration, in oratory, and es- 
pecially in poetry. 

The Figures of Rhetoric are sometimes called Tropes, from 
a Greek word signifying to turn, because the meaning or use 
of the word is turned from its primary, or first meaning. 



170 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. [Book III. 

7. "I am an aged hemlock. The storms of a hundred 
winters have whistled through mj branches." 

Example seventh is an extract from the speech of an aged Indian chief. 
In plain language, it would be ; I am an aged man. The storms of a 
hundred years have whistled around me. By comparing himself to 
an aged hemlock, other ideas are at once brought to mind, which not 
only please us by their variety, but assist the narration ; and, finally, 
enable us to retain the whole expression. (See p. 52,} 

4. Figurative Language has its origin in that part 
of man's mental constitution, which compares and as- 
sociates the attributes and properties of things while 
imagining and reflecting. (See p. 29.) 

Writers usually ascribe the origin of Figurative language 
to a necessity arising from the want of words in the earlier 
developments of the language itself. The subsequent use of 
figures they ascribe to a discovery of the convenience and 
the pleasure afforded by them. We would as soon ascribe 
the origin and the subsequent use of breathing and of eating 
to the same causes. It seems to us perfectly natural that 
mankind should speak as they think; and no species of think- 
ing is more natural than that, which gives birth to figurative 
language. Because things and their properties in so many 
ways are constantly suggesting other things and their prop- 
erties. 

In Book First, we have shown the constitution of the 
human mind to be such, that it must begin to learn through 
the aid of the senses and external things ; and, also, that the 
knowledge thus gained, together with a knowledge of them- 
selves, becomes the elements, from which the mental faculties 
deduce that higher kind of knowledge, which we have called 
the abstract, or supersensuous ; and we have also shown that 
in this tendency of the mind to compare, associate, and deduce, 
Figurative Language has its origin. This statement will ex- 
plain what a certain writer on this subject means, when he 
says ; " In very many occasions, they [figures] are both the 
most natural, and the most common method of expressing our 
sentiments. It is impossible to compose any discourse with- 



Prop. 15.] FIGURES AND THOUGHTS. 171 

out using them often ; nay, there are few sentences of any 
length, in which 3ome expression or other, that may be termed 
a figure, does not occur. The fact shows that they are to be 
accounted a part of that language which nature dictates to 
man. They are not the inventions of the schools, nor the 
mere product of study ; on the contrary, the most illiterate 
speak in figures, as often as the most learned. [He might 
have said oftener.~] Whenever the imaginations of the vul- 
gar are much awakened, or their passions inflamed against one 
another, they will pour forth a torrent of figurative language 
as forcible as could be employed by the most artificial de- 
ciaimer." Figures, then, are the natural language of imagin- 
ation and of feeling. 

5. Figures should be used as the accompaniment 
only, never in the place of thoughts. 

.Figures are only the accessories ; the means by which 
thought is rendered more intelligible and more attractive. 
They are to the thought what dress and culture are to the 
body ; not to take its place, but to take place in connection 
with it and as an appendage of it. While the figure adorns 
the thought and adds to its comeliness, it is the thought, that 
gives the basis of value to the whole ; the former is but the 
guinea's stamp, the latter is the gold which gives it currency. 
Our common-place thoughts are beneath figures ; our noblest 
and sublimest are above them ; the former are unworthy of 
figures ; the value of the latter is recognised at sight and 
therefore does not need them. It is only those that require 
more attraction than what they possess in themselves, and are 
worthy of it, which require and admit figures. I utter a plain 
truth when I say, " God, from mankind, hides the knowledge 
of all events except the present," but how much more agree- 
ably and impressively the same is told and enforced by the 
aid of a very simple figure ; — 

" Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 
All, but the page, prescribed their present state." 



172 FIGURES. [Book IH. 

The Great Teacher used figures freely in his instructions, 
an example of which is his lesson at the well of Samaria, 
whose water he made the type of " that water, which I shall 
give him." The lily, the seed-time, the harvest ; all seasons 
and all occasions, furnished him the means wherewith to illus- 
trate and enforce his teachings, and ever afterward to be the 
monitors, by which they should be recalled. It was in refer- 
ence to his example in this respect, that we gave the rule for 
the use of Comparisons. 

Sensible objects and their properties are the most familiar 
to us, and, therefore, when abstract ideas are presented, it is 
always by comparison with sensible objects. Thus the process 
of acquiring primary knowledge is called the synthetic from 
its analogy to the process of building. For the same reason 
we speak of mental and moral operations and their effects in * 
the same terms, which we employ for what we conceive to be 
similar in objects of sense ; as, a hard heart, a great intellect, 
an acute mind, a dull comprehension. We are inflamed by 
passion, warmed by love, and melted by grief. It is easy to 
say that the Roman state was the most prosperous and en- 
joyed the greatest reputation under Augustus ; and that 
during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, English literature 
reached a high development, and gained greatly in reputa- 
tion ; but instead of using plain language, we compare the 
Roman state to a tree and the literature of England to the 
Roman state, when we say, " The Roman state flourished 
most under Augustus ; and during Elizabeth's reign was the 
Augustan age of English literature." 

The effect of this use of terms is to save an increase in 
the number of words, and the consequent trouble of learning 
their definitions ; and it also enables us to join or associate 
our knowledge with sensible objects and their properties and 
thus to be reminded of it by that, which we iiave called local 
or incidental association. Indeed, every one must have 
learned from the experience of childhood, that oftentimes the 
figure alone was understood and retained, while that, which 
it typified was not known until years afterward, and even 



Prop. 15.] USE OF FIGURES. 173 

then was recalled and explained by the figure. There is no 
place where a proper admixture of figurative language would 
be productive of more good results, than in the daily school ; 
and yet it is not usually found in the schools even in the 
proportions, in which it is used in the daily walks of life. 
We too easily forget, that it is the language of nature, and 
hence is peculiarly fitted for the use of learners. 

Dr. Blair mentions four reasons why figures, or tropes 
contribute to the beauty and grace of language ; to which we 
would add, and to the value of language also. 

"First. They enrich language, and render it more copious. 
By their means, words and phrases are multiplied for ex- 
pressing all sorts of ideas ; for describing even the minutest 
differences ; the nicest shades and colors of thought ; which 
no language could possibly do by proper words alone, without 
assistance from tropes. 

"Second. They bestow dignity upon style. The familiar- 
ity of common words, to which our ears are much accustomed, 
tends to degrade style. When we want to adapt our lan- 
guage to the tone of an elevated subject, we should be greatly 
at a loss, if we could not borrow assistance from figures ; 
which, properly employed, have a similar effect on language, 
with what is produced by the rich and splendid dress of a 
person of rank; to create respect, and to give an air of 
magnificence to him who wears it. Assistance of this kind, 
is often needed in prose compositions ; but poetry could not 
subsist without it. Hence, figures form the constant language 
of poetry. To say, that * the sun rises,' is trite and common ; 
but it becomes a magnificent image when expressed, as Mr. 
Thomson has done : — 

' But yonder comes the powerful king of day, 
Rejoicing in the east/ 

To say, that '%ill men are subject alike to death,' presents 
only a vulgar idea; but it rises and fills the imagination, 
when painted thus by Horace ; — 

• With equal pace, impartial fate 
Knocks at the palace, as the cottage gate.' 



174 USE OF FIGURES. [Book III. 

"Third. Figures give us the pleasure of enjoying two ob- 
jects presented together to our view, without confusion ; the 
principal idea, which is the subject of the discourse, along 
with its accessory, which gives it the figurative dress. We 
see one thing in another, as Aristotle expresses it ; which is 
always agreeable to the mind. For there is nothing with 
which the fancy is more delighted, than with comparisons, 
and resemblances of objects ; and all tropes are founded upon 
some relation or analogy between one thing and another. 
When, for instance, in place of ' youth/ I say the c morning 
of life ;' the fancy is immediately entertained with all the 
resembling circumstances which presently occur between these 
two objects. At one moment, I have in my eye a certain 
period of human life, and a certain time of the day, so related 
to each other, that the imagination plays between them with 
pleasure, and contemplates two similar objects, in one view, 
without embarrassment or confusion. 

"Fourth. Figures are attended with this farther advantage 
of giving us frequently a much clearer and more striking 
view of the principal object, than we could have of it were 
it expressed in simple terms, and divested of its accessory 
idea. This is, indeed, their principal advantage, in virtue of 
which, they are very properly said to illustrate a subject, or 
to throw a light upon it. For they exhibit the object, on 
which they are employed, in a picturesque form ; they can 
render an abstract conception, in some degree, an object of 
sense ; they surround it with such circumstances, as enable 
the mind to lay hold of it steadily, and to contemplate it fully. 
' Those persons,' says one, < who gain the hearts of most peo- 
ple, who are chosen as the companions of their softer hours, 
and their reliefs from anxiety and care, are seldom persons 
of shining qualities, or strong virtues : it is rather the soft 
green of the soul, on which we rest our eyeg, that are fa- 
tigued with beholding more glaring objects.' Here, by a 
happy allusion to a color, the whole conception is conveyed 
clear and strong to the mind in one word. 



Prop. 15.] TROPES — FIGURES OF THOUGHT. 175 

" By a well chosen figure, even conviction is assisted, and 
the impression of a truth upon the mind made more lively 
and forcible than it would otherwise be. As in the following 
illustration of Dr. Young's : ' When we dip too deep in pleas- 
ure, we always stir a sediment that renders it impure and 
noxious ;' or in this, 'A heart boiling with violent passions, 
will always send up infatuating fumes to the head.' An 
image that presents so much congruity between a moral and 
a sensible idea, serves like an argument from analogy, to en- 
force what the other asserts, and to induce belief." 

6. Figures are sometimes divided into Tropes or 
Figures of words, and Figures of thought. 

7. A Trope, or Figure of words, is one in which 
the figure depends on the use of a certain word or 
words ; so that, if the latter be changed, the figure 
will be destroyed ; thus — 

8. Farewell, ye green fields. 

If this example be changed as follows, it becomes plain language ; 
Farewell to the green fields. So, if rally and bleed in the following 
example be changed to rallied and bled, the figure will be destroyed. 

9. " They rally, they bleed for their kingdom and crown." 
They rallied, they bled for their kingdom and crown. 

8. Figures of thought exist in the sentiment; they 
do not depend upon a particular word or words, and 
hence may be translated from one expression, or lan- 
guage, to another. 

10. Ye stars, which are the poetry of Heaven ! 

11. "As the clear light upon the holy candlestick, so is the 
beauty of the face in ripe age." 

9. We shall now proceed to discuss figures accord- 
ing as we consider them to have originated in com- 
parison, or in association,' or to be the direct result of 
the imagination. 



176 COMPARISON — SIMILE. [Book IH 



PKOPOSITION SIXTEENTH. 

1. The figures , which originate in comparison, are 
Simile, Metaphor, Antithesis, Interrogation, Irony, 
Allusion, and Allegory. 

2. When these figures are used to explain, or sim 
plify a subject, they are called Explanatory Similes; 
as — 

1. Bad books are like pirates, sailing under false colors in 
every sea, and delighting in the conquest and plunder of 
every thing precious. 

2. The wheel and axle are the same in principle as the 
lever; the radius of the wheel being the longer, and that of. 
the axle the shorter arm. 

This kind of comparison is the one for which the rule for the use of 
comparisons is mainly intended. (See p. 50.) 

3. When these figures toe used mainly for ornament, 
or to please by beautifying the narration, they are 
called Embellishing Similes. 

3. " Science like the sun enlightens every object on which 
it shines." 

4. " Like the gale, that sighs along 

Beds of oriental flowers, 
Is the grateful breath of song, 

That once was heard in happier hours." 

5. " The last glimpse you catch of the soul, she is gloriously 
entering the harbor, the haven of eternal rest ; yea, you see 
her like a star, that in the morning of eternity fades into the 
light of heaven.' f — Oheever. 

4. Simile is a comparison between two or more ob- 
jects, which have some resemblance. It is shown by 
the connectors, as, like, thus, so, &c. 



Prop. 16.] COMPARISON — SIMILE — METAPHOR. 177 

6. In the multitude of words there wanteth not sin, so in 
the multitude of text-books, and so in our social relations. 

5. Similes must be taken from objects of a different 
class, yet having some relation to that, which is to be 
explained or embellished. 

We may compare things of the same kind, but when we 
do so, it is to find their points of difference. If I say, Cice- 
ro's oratory was like that of Demosthenes, I must mean that 
their styles of oratory were the same, that is identical; but if 
I show how they may be distinguished, then I am finding 
differences instead of similarities. 

6. The object to which we compare, should always 
be more familiar than that which is compared. 

This is according to the rule requiring the definition to be more fa- 
miliar than the term defined. 

7. Similes should be made with such objects as 
will best suggest the mental feelings which we wish 
to produce. 

If we wish to ennoble, to elicit admiration, or win respect, 
our comparisons must be chosen from noble, admirable, and 
honorable sources ; if we wish to stigmatize or degrade, a 
choice of comparisons should be made which will produce 
that effect. 

7. Eloquence, to produce her full effect, should start from 
the head of the orator, as Minerva from the brain of Jupiter, 
completely armed and equipped. 

8. Some men's eloquence, like the web of the spider, 
comes from the stomach rather than from the head. 

8. A Metaphor is a figure whose terms are applied 
directly to that which is compared ; the words showing 
comparison being omitted; as — 

9. " The world is a stage ; the men and women are merely 
players." 

8* 



178 COMPARISON — METAPHOR. [Book III. 

In this example we have the world compared to a stage, not by the 
words of comparison as in the simile, but by applying the term stage 
directly to the part named by world. This example becomes a simile 
by inserting a word to show the comparison ; as — 

The world is like a stage. 

The Metaphor is a more vivid and lively figure than the Simile, be- 
cause it applies the name at once to the object, instead of compelling 
the reader or hearer to make the comparison for himself; in all lan- 
guages the Metaphor has always been a favorite, and is used more than 
any or perhaps all of the other figures. 

9. The Metaphor may be distinguished from all 
other figures by this test ; if taken literally ', it always 
asserts an untruth. 

10. Human life is a shadow. 

11. "A faithful minister is a pillar of state." 

12. "Thou, on whose burning tongue, truth, peace, and 
freedom hung." 

Taken literally, nothing is more untrue than that life is a shadow, or 
that any man is a pillar ; and a burning tongue must be an uncomfort- 
able member in any mouth. 

Disputants often take advantage of this to render the plea of the op- 
posite party ridiculous. 

I©. Two, or more Metaphors, used in the place of 
one, form a Mixed Metaphor. These should be care- 
fully avoided, because they are untrue to nature. 

13. The storms of adversity should never be allowed to 
outweigh the heart's natural affections. 

We do not estimate storms nor the affections by weight; hence, we 
can form no idea of them by this standard, much less of the process of 
weighing them. Storms cool, repress, extinguish, &c. ; the affection 
warm, burn, glow ; hence we may speak of the storms of adversity in 
regard to the affections, as of the effect of natural storms on flames. 

The storms of adversity should never be allowed to extinguish the 
heart's natural affections. 

14. We take up arms against a sea of troubles. 

"We had better lay down our arms in this case, and take to building 
a dike, or sea-wall. 



Prop. 16.] COMPARISON — ANTITHESIS. 179 

11. The best test of a metaphor's correctness or 
truthfulness to nature, is to imagine how it would ap- 
pear if drawn as a picture. 

15. " Delusive gold, a smiling fiend thou art, 

Sev'ring those bands, that Death alone should part." 

It is not difficult to imagine a smiling fiend doing the work of Death, 
hence we see that this Metaphor is true to nature. 

The following is supposed to be the language of a mother, whose 
son had just followed his father to the wars. 

16. "Now from my fond embrace by tempest torn, 

Our other column of the state is borne, 
Nor took a kind adieu, nor sought consent." 

One column of the state had been carried off before the other, which 
did not come back to ask consent. Try to imagine a picture of it. 

IS. Antithesis is a comparison to find differences 
of ideas, and is denoted by such connectives as, but, 
nor, or, more, than, in this, on the other, &c. It is 
sometimes called comparison by Contrast, or Opposi- 
tion, and is directly opposed to Simile, or Comparison 
by Resemblance. 

17. "The king's wrath is as the roaring of a lion, but his 
favo* is as dew upon the grass." 

18. " Charles I. reminds us more of some mock king in a 
farce, than a real one on the theatre of history." 

13. Antithesis always requires at least two full 
statements and, hence, moves slowly, or formally. This 
fits it for contrasting objects, or thoughts; especially 
for the purposes of instruction ; for ceremony ; for sat- 
ire, or ridicule ; and for wit, or humor, because it al- 
lows the mind time to contemplate both statements. 

19. The sun shines with his own, while the mocjn shines 
with reflected light. 

20. Language performs more than it promises ; Metaphys- 
ics promises more than it performs. 



180 COMPARISON — IRONY. [Book III. 

21. " Cleo. Nay, pray you, seek no color for your going, 

But bid farewell, and go, when you sued staying, 

Then was the time for words ; No going then ; — 

Eternity was in our lips and eyes, 

Bliss in our brow's bent ; none of our parts so poor ; 

But was a race of heaven ; They are so still, 

Or thou, the greatest soldier of the world, 

Art turned the greatest liar." 

22. The whirlwind in its career of destruction may tear up 
the oak, rend the rock from the mountain's side, and lay 
prostrate the forest \ but the calm will follow, and the violet 
will spring up in its path. 

14. Irony is a species of Antithesis in which the 
contrast is shown by using terms signifying the very 
opposite of what we mean ; as — 

23. "A Daniel, still say I ; a second Daniel ! 

I thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that word." 

24. You have cared for them? Yes, as the hawk for the. 
starling ; as the wolf for the tender lamb ! 

Irony and Metaphor are alike in not requiring the aid of 
connectives because they apply the figurative terms directly 
to the primary part ; they are unlike, in that the former is a 
comparison by contrast, while the latter is a comparison by 
resemblance. (See p. 50, §7.) 

15. Irony is more commonly known as Satire, 
Ridicule, and, when accompanied by mimicry, as 
Mockery. 

25. Satire. " We hate all fools these upstarts say, 

From which most plainly it appears, 
Their other faults be what they may, 
Self-love is not a fault of theirs." 

26. Mockery. " Elijah mocked them, and said, < Cry aloud ; 
for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he 
is in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be 
awaked/ " 



Prop. 16.] COMPARISON — ALLUSION. 181 

16. Interrogation is a contrast expressed in the 
form of a question, to which no answer is expected. 
When in the direct form this figure becomes irony. 

27. A Daniel, say you, a second Daniel ? 

28. Glendower. I can call spirits from the vasty deep. 
Hotspur. Why, so can I, so can any man ; 

But will they come, when you do call for them ? 

Interrogation is a lively and strong mode of presenting a 
statement. In the Scriptures, it is frequently used. 

29. " Shall I and thy mother and thy brethren indeed 
come to bow down ourselves to thee to the earth ?" 

17. Allusion is a reference to some author by using 
a well known saying ; or to some scientific fact in such 
a way as to suggest it. 

18. Allusions are named according to the subjects, 
to which the reference is made ; Scriptural, historical, 
classical, scientific, professional, &c. 

30. Scriptural Allusion. " Well, might the good man say, 
6 Our Father, which art in heaven/ for he felt it, and all man- 
kind were his brethren." 

31. " The loudest notes of triumph or conquest will be silent 
in the grave ; the wicked, wherever active, t will cease from 
troubling/ and the weary, wherever suffering, ' will be at rest/ " 

Scriptural allusions, when properly introduced, are in- 
structive and pleasing ; but it is always in bad taste to in- 
troduce them for ffght and trifling purposes. 

32. Historical. Resolving not to be the slave of intemper- 
ance is a " declaration of individual right ;" and signing the 
pledge is " consenting to the articles of the confederation." 

33. Classical. To protect himself from all the assaults of 
temptation, the earthly pilgrim needs the armor of Achilles, 
and the eyes of Argus. 

34. Poetical. Who does not feel that the " Thanatopsis," 
" The Psalm of life," " Home, sweet home/' and other such 



182 COMPARISON — ALLEGORY. [Book m. 

gems of poetry, fully entitle their authors to be ranked 
among the poets of the age ? 

35. Mathematical. We make progress intellectually in the 
direct ratio of our mental activity. 

36. Professional. "The sorrow for the dead is the only 
sorrow, from which we refuse to be divorced. Every other 
wound we seek to heal — Who would root out such a sorrow 
from the heart ?" 

19. An Allegory is a figure, in which the figurative 
or secondary part only is expressed ; the meaning being 
left to be supplied by the reader, or hearer. 

20. The Allegory is used for embellishment ; for 
instruction, as in parables, and fables ; and for amuse- 
ment, as in riddles, conundrums, &c. 

37. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast 
cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room 
before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the 
land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it; and 
the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent 
out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. 
Why hast thou then broken down her hedges, so that all 
they which pass by the way do pluck her ? The boar out of 
the wood doth waste it ; and the wild beast of the field doth 
devour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of Hosts ; look 
down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine !" (Ps. 80.) 

Some define the Allegory as a continued Metaphor, but 
this is manifestly wrong ; metaphor names* both parts and 
asserts that the primary is something, which it only resembles ; 
allegory names the secondary part only, leaving the primary 
to the imagination, or reflection of the one addressed. 

The Scripture Parables furnish a number of fine allegories 
used for instruction ; BunyarCs Pilgrim's Progress is an un- 
usually fine allegory ; Fables are allegories, in which the 
words and actions of men are attributed to beasts and inani- 
mate things ; while the moral is the literal, or primary part. 



Prop. 17J ASSOCIATION — CLIMAX. 183 



PROPOSITION SEVENTEENTH. 

1 . The Figures, which originate in Association, are 
Enumeration, Climax, Metonomy, Synecdoche, Imita- 
tion, Omission, Repetition, and Sorites. 

2. Enumeration or Pleonasm consists in giving a list 
of particulars for the purpose of enabling the mind to 
form a more perfect idea of the object described. 

1. The entire population turned out to witness the im- 
posing ceremony ; there were the aged, the middle-aged, the 
young ; old men and maidens, mothers and sons ; the high and 
the low, the rich and the poor. 

All that follows the word ceremony is an Enumeration of the partic- 
ulars implied in the word population. 

3. When this figure is used in a discourse, or in the 
analysis of a science, it is called Division. (See p. 69.) 

2. The sounds of words may be employed for representing 
three classes of objects ; first, other sounds ; secondly, mo- 
tion ; and thirdly, the emotions and passions of the mind. 

3. Philosophy is divided into three kinds ; Natural, Men- 
tal, and Moral. 

4. Climax is an enumeration of particulars arranged 
so as to increase in importance to the last. When the 
particulars decrease in importance to the last, it is 
called an Anti-climax. 

4. Benevolence is a duty which I owe to myself, to my 
neighbors, to all mankind, and to God. 

5. " Yet there is a band of human beings on board that 
weather-beaten vessel, and they have voluntarily come to this 
savage coast to spend the rest of their lives, and to die there. 
Eight thousand miles they have struggled across the ocean, 
from a land of plenty and comfort, from their own beloved 



184 METONOMY — SYNECDOCHE. [Book m, 

country, from their homes, firesides, friends, to gather around 
an altar to God, in the winter, in the wilderness ! What 
does it all mean ? It marks to a noble mind, the invaluable 
blessedness of freedom to worship God." — Cheever. 

5. Metonomy is applying the name of one object to 
another incidentally, or naturally associated with it ; 
as, cause and effect, container and the thing contained, 
sign and what is signified, &c. 

6. Cause and Effect Gray hairs should be respected. 

7. Whom the^word of the Greeks had spared. 

Gray hairs, the effect of old age ; sword, the weapon of the Greeks. 

8. Container for the Thing contained. His money-bags 
are his idols. 

9. Sign for what is signified. We met them at the Pewter 
Mug. 

10. No sleep till morn when Youth and Pleasure meet. 

6. Synecdoche is a figure in which more, or less 
than what is really meant is named ; as, a part for the 
whole, the whole for a part. 

11. This town contains about three thousand souls. 
Here souls, sl part, is put for the whole. 

12. All hands unmoor the eager captain cries; — 
Here hands is taken for the whole man. 

13. Three hundred head of cattle remained. 

Pope speaks of " a hundred head of Aristotle's friends." 
A polite way of calling them stupid beasts. 

7. A Synecdoche, in which a general term is used 
for a particular, is called Antonomasia; as, a great 
orator is called the Cicero of his age. 

8. When from modesty, or from arrogance, many is 
put for one, the Synecdoche is called Communication; 
as, We think it our duty ; for I think it my duty. 

9. Sometimes from fear of wounding another's sen- 



Pkop. 17.] IMITATION — OMISSION — SORITES. 185 

sibilities, less is, said, than is really meant ; this Synec- 
doche is called Litotes, or Extenuation. 
# 14. I can not approve your choice ; that is, I, condemn it. 

15. I do not say that this will not pain you. 

10. A Synecdoche, used to soften the annunciation 
of a painful truth, is called Euphemism. 

16. "Asleep in Jesus, blessed sleep !" He fell asleep. 

1 1 . Imitation is a figure, in which the words imi- 
tate the sound of the thing named; as, hiss, whir, 
buzz, bubble, ivhoop. 

17. " When Ajax strives some rock's huge weight to throw, 

The line too labors, and the words move slow;^ 
Not so, when swift Camilla scours the plain ; [main." 
Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the 

12. Omission, or Paralipsis is the pretended omis- 
sion of what one is actually narrating. 

18. I need not mention her ruined palaces, her desecrated 
temples, her polluted shrines ; it is enough to say, when 
Roman virtue was no more, Rome fell. 

19. "Not to speak of that eye, -which glances through all 
disguises, and beholds every thing, as in the splendor of noon, 
— such secrets of guilt are never safe from detection, even 
by men." 

13. Repetition is a kind of pleonasm, in which the 
same words are repeated. 

20. "Our country; our whole country; and nothing but 
our country." 

14. Sorites is a succession of statements, in which 
the First Object of the first statement becomes the sub- 
ject of the next, and so on. 

21. "My son rules his mother; his mother rules me; I 
rule the Athenians ; the Athenians rule Greece ; Greece rules 
Europe; Europe rules the whole earth; therefore my son 
rules the whole earth." 



186 IMAGINATION — VISION. [Book HI. 



PROPOSITION EIGHTEENTH. 

1. The figures, resulting from imagination, are 
Exclamation, Vision, Personification, Apostrophe, and 
Hyperbole. 

3. Exclamation is a figurative expression prompted 
by feelings aroused by a vivid imagination ; as — 

1. How sinks his soul ! What black despair, what horror 
fills his heart ! 

2. What ! shall he scourge ! bind ! and put to death — the 
infamous death of the cross — a Roman citizen ! 

3. Vision is a figure, in which what is past, future, 
or distant, is described as present. 

3. " I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of 
the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved 
in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered 
heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined 
country." 

4. " For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight ; 

And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight." 

5. " 'Tis morn, but scarce yon lurid sun 

Can pierce the war-clouds rolling dun, 
Where furious Frank and fiery Hun 
Shout in their sulphurous panoply." 

4=. Personification is a figure, in which inanimate 
objects are represented ; as, living, acting, &c. 

6. " Hail, smiling morn, that tips the hills with gold !" 

5. There are three kinds or degrees of Personifica- 
tion ; first, when only the properties of the living are 
attributed to inanimate objects ; as — 

7. The glad morning, the joyous sunshine, the pleasant 
fields, are only a small part of his bounties. 



Prop. 18.] PERSONIFICATION — APOSTROPHE. 187 

Second. When the actions, or the properties and ac- 
tions of the living are attributed to the inanimate ; as, 

8. " Yes, the year is growing old 

And his eye is pale and bleared ! 
Death with frosty hand and cold 
Plucks the old man by the beard, sorely — sorely!" 

Third. When the inanimate are represented as speak- 
ing, or as listening to us ; as — 

9. " The earth gave signs of gratulations, and each hill. 
Joyous the birds, fresh gales and gentle airs 
Whispered it to the woods, and from their wings 
Flung rose, flung odor from the spicy shrub — " 

10. "Lo!" cries the spirit of the cloud, "how I 

Compel the wind to bear me on its wings — " 

6. Apostrophe is a figure, in which an address is 
made to some personified object, or to some absent per- 
son,, or to some invisible being, as if present. 

11. "Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star 

In his steep course ? So long he seems to pause 
On thy bald, awful head, Sovereign Blanc !" 

12. " But, alas ! you are not all here ! Time and the 
sand have thinned your ranks. Prescott, Putnam, Stark, 
Brooks, Read, Pomeroy, Bridge ! Our eyes seek for you in 
vain amid this broken band. You are gathered to your fa- 
thers, and live only to your country in her grateful remem- 
brance and your own bright example !" — Webster. 

13. "He paused a moment, and then broke forth; — 
1 Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty ! 
In wisdom hast thou made them all. Who would not fear 
thee, O Lord, and glorify thy name, for thou only art holy ?' " 

7. Hyperbole, or Exaggeration is ascribing more 
than natural attributes, or actions, to objects ; as, It is 
whiter than snow ; he is swifter than the eagle, &c. 



188 HYPERBOLE — GENERAL RULES. [Book in. 

When such statements are made they do not surprise us, 
because they are so common. "We take them at a sufficient 
discount to realize their true value. If we are told that every' 
body was at the church, lecture, or concert, on some particu- 
lar occasion, we understand that a large number of persons 
were present. 

8 . Hyperboles are divided into two kinds ; Hyper- 
boles of passion, and Hyperboles of description. 

9. An Hyperbole of passion is one used by a person 
under the influence of passion; while the Hyperbole 
of description is used by one, who describes what he 
has seen, or witnessed. 

The former is naturally the stronger, since we expect one 
to be more affected by what is felt than by what is seen. 
Again, while the former is used by any, or all excited per- 
sons, the latter is used by persons of excitable temperaments, 
and vivid imaginations. 

The following Hyperbole of passion is in good taste, and a very beau- 
tiful'figure ; but if uttered by a second party and thus changed to an 
Hyperbole of description, would be insufferably bombastic ; — 

14. " that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fount- 
ain of tears, that I might weep day and night for the slain 
of the daughter of my people." 



PROPOSITION NINETEENTH. 

1. Beside the special directions given under each 
of the figures, the following General Rules must be 
observed. 

Rule First. Figures must rise from the subject 
naturally. 

This they will do, whenever they have points, which admit 



Prop, 19.] GENERAL RULES FOR FIGURES. 189 

of comparison, or association, or when they originate in feel- 
ings, or emotions excited by the subject ; hence — 

First If they be sought and studied, figures will appear 
to be stiff and formal and, of course, unnatural. 

1. "I was glad that day ; 
The June was in me, with its multitudes 
Of nightingales all singing in the dark, 

And rosebuds reddening where the calyx split." — Aurora Leigh. 

2. " Death's black dust, being blown 

Infiltrated through every secret fold 

Of this sealed letter by a puff of fate, 

Dried up for ever the fresh-written ink, 

Annulled the gift, disutilized the grace, 

And left these fragments !" Aurora Leigh. 

Second. If they be unnatural, or have been studied, they 
will detract from the beauty of composition. Studied and 
unnatural figures render a subject ridiculous, burlesque, or 
bombastic, or even mere twaddle. 

3. Twaddle. " The stars struck dumb and washed away in dews 
Of golden glory, and the mountains steeped in divine languor I" 

Second Rule. Figures must be appropriate to the 
subject. 

Figures are appropriate when they accomplish the purpose 
for which they are used ; and they may be used to dignify, or 
to demean. 

First. When used to dignify, they must be drawn from a 
subject more dignified than the primary and yet not so far 
above as to eclipse it. 

4. Human law can not be as perfect as the Divine law, because it 
is both made and administered by fallible beings. 

5. Human like Divine laws aim at the perfection of justice. 

In the former example, human law is dignified by comparing even 
its fallibility#with the infallibility of the Divine ; in the latter, it is 
eclipsed ; for how can the perfection of the human be favorably com- 
pared with that of the Divine. 

Second. When used to demean, or degrade, the figure must 
be drawn from something meaner than the primary. 



190 GENERAL RULES FOR FIGURES. [Book III. 

6. "As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman with- 
out discretion." 

Eule Third. Trite, or tvornrout figures, should be 
avoided. 

Some figures have been so long in use, and have become 
so common-place that they neither illustrate, nor adorn. 

7. "My love is like the red, red rose." 

8. Her brow is fair as alabaster, her cheeks are red as roses, and her 
teeth are as white as milk. 

Eemember ; novelty is a great part of what is pleasing in 
figures. 

Rule Fourth. Figures should not be drawn from 
subjects tvhose relations to the primary parts are either 
faint, or not generally known. 

A figure can explain and embellish only as it brings to 
mind familiar ideas ; figures confuse and annoy us, when 
they suggest relations which we do not perceive, or ideas 
which are not familiar. 

9. " The holy book like the eighth sphere doth shine." 

Eule Fifth. Figures should not be pursued too far. 

Nothing is more insufferably dull and stupid than the viola- 
tions of this rule. It is like listening to a detailed descrip- 
tion of another person's dress. We should presume that the 
hearer, or reader will supply some of the particulars, after 
the attention has once been aroused by the figure. 

10. " The tackle of my heart is cracked and burnt ; 

And all the shrouds wherewith my life should sail 

Are turned to one thread, one little hair : 

My heart hath one poor string to stay it by, 

Which holds till thy news be uttered." ShaJcspeare. 

Sixth Eule. Figurative and Plain language should 
not be mixed in the same period. 

That is, the sentences must not be so constructed that a 
part of each must be taken literally, while a part is taken 
figuratively. 



Peop. 19.] EXERCISE IN FIGURES. 191 

11. "But up in groves Paradise full surely we shall see 

Our morning-glory beautiful twine round our dear Lord's knee." 

In example eleventh, we have a morning-glory in the groves of Para- 
dise ; a very good picture ; but who has ever seen, or wishes to see one 
twine round the knee of a person. This last is plain language. 

In addition to a careful study of Figurative Language, as 
given in this Work, every student should read attentively 
Blair's Lectures, and Xante's Elements of Criticism. In 
these, the teacher also may find a good+variety of examples, 
and some fine specimens of criticism, which may be read and 
explained before the class. 



Exercise. 



In the following Exercise, the pupil will find examples, 
which it will be well for him to examine, and tell whether 
they belong to Plain or to Figurative Language, and if Fig- 
urative, to what Figure. 

1. Hail, then, all hail, thou fair morning of this fairest of the months! 

2. Till morning waked by the circling hours, 
With rosy hand unbarred the gates of light. 

3. While overhead the moon sits arbitress. 

4. Thy verse created like thy theme sublime, 

In number, weight, and measure, needs not rhyme. 

5. Your bodies may at last turn all to spirit ; 
Improved by tract of time, and wing'd ascend ethereal. 

6. Hypocrisy, the only evil that walks invisible. 

7. The morning stars sang together. 

8. The sky was clear and of the milky-cerulean of chrysoprase. 

9. The south wind stole suddenly back from the tropics, and found 
his flowery mistress asleep, and insensible to his kisses beneath her 
snowy mantle. 

10. There are moments in existence which comprise the power of 
years ; as thousands of roses are contained in a few drops of their 
essence. 

11. Life is real ! life is earnest! and the grave is not its goal. 

12. Old Gibblet was a perfect scarecrow to the small fry of the day. 

13. Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an enemy 
are deceitful. 

14. O unexampled love ! love nowhere to be found less than divine ! 

15. He shall not die but live, and thou shalt save his soul alive. 



192 LANGUAGE. [Book HI. 



PKOPOSITION TWENTIETH. 

1 . Language is any medium by which men, or ani- 
mals, convey to each other their feelings and desires ; 
as, common conversation ; the signs used by deaf per- 
sons ; the bark of a dog ; &c, &c. 

2. Language is of two kinds, Natural and Artificial. 

3. Natural Language is that which children and animals 
use by instinct, or without previous instruction; as, the cry 
of a child, the note of a bird, &c. 

4. Artificial Language consists of certain arbitrary signs, 
or sounds, to which certain meanings are attached. 

5. Artificial Language is of three kinds ; Language of 
Gesture, Language of Sound, and Written or Recorded 
Language. 

6. Language of Gesture is that, in which we attach par- 
ticular meanings to particular Gestures ; as, the signs used 
by Mutes. 

7. Language of Sound is that, in which we attach partic- 
ular meaning to particular sounds. 

8. Language of Sound is of three kinds; Speaking, Sing- 
ing, and Miscellaneous sounds. 

9. Spoken Language is that, which is produced by the 
Organs of Voice, and the Organs of Speech. 

1 0. The Organs of the Voice., or the Vocal Organs, are 
the windpipe, the palate, and the back portions of the mouth. 

1 1 . Languages, many of whose sounds are produced by 
the organs of voice, are called Guttural Languages ; as the 
Indian Languages, in which occur such words as Onondaga, 
Ontario, Susquehanna, &c. 

12. The Organs of Speech are the teeth, tongue, lips, 
and the front and upper portions of the mouth. 

1 3. Languages, having many sounds modified by the teeth 



Prop. 20,] IDEAGRAPHIC LANGUAGE, 193 

and tongue, are called Dental Languages; as the English 
Language in such words as senses, saddle, scissors, lions, 
tigers. 

Languages, in which the Palatal, or Dental sounds predominate, are 
usually harsher, or less euphonious to the ear, than those in which the 
purely vocal and the labial sounds predominate. Hence Rosseau, 
when speaking of language, said, that he " would talk English to the 
birds, German to his horse, French to his friend, Spanish to his Creator, 
and Italian to his lady-love." 

1 4. Languages, having many sounds formed on the lips, 
are called Labial Languages ; as, Many men of many minds, 
baptism, mishap, behave. 

15. Language of Sound, used in singing, is the same as 
spoken language, except in the kind of tones used. 

Every one wishing to become a good reader should practise singing 
as a means of developing the organs of voice, the lungs, and the mus- 
cles of the chest* 

1 6. Language of Miscellaneous sounds includes all those 
sounds which are not used in speaking, or singing ; as, the 
sound of a bell, the steam-whistle, the dinner-horn, &c. 

17. Written, or Recorded Languages are those, in which 
characters, or pictures are used as signs of ideas, or as signs 
of sounds. 

18. Written, or Recorded Languages are of two kinds; 
Ideagraphic and Phonographic. 

1 9. The Ideagraphic Languages are those, in which a 
particular character represents a particular idea; as the 
Mathematical characters, the American, Asiatic, and ancient 
Egyptian languages. 

20. Ideagraphic Languages are of two kinds; in one of 
which pictures of the objects are used, and in the other signs. 

The North American Indians used rude pictures to record events. 
They were also used by the ancient Egyptian priests, and hence were 
called "hieroglyphics." These were sometimes used as signs of sounds. 
It is probable that pictures were first used and that the other signs are 
modifications of these pictures. (See Gliddon's 20 years in Egypt.) 

It may seem strange at first sight that while the Chinese and Jap- 
anese, read each other's writings, they can not understand each other's 

9 



194 ENUNCIATION — ARTICULATION. [Book IIL 

speech; but this will be readily understood by recollecting that the 
same is true of an Englishman and a Frenchman in regard to Mathe- 
matical signs, or characters. 

21. Phonographic Languages are those, in which the 
characters and their combinations represent sounds and also 
ideas and thoughts. 

22. Different Languages use a different number of 
sounds, some of the sounds used in one not being used in 
another. In the English Language about forty different 
Bounds are used. 

23. The Alphabets of the different Languages vary in 
the number of letters which they contain. In the Alphabet 
of the English Language there are 26, in the Latin 24, 
Greek 24, French 24, Italian 24, Spanish 24, Abyssinian 
202, and the Brahmanic 240. 

24. Since in the English Language there are about forty 
sounds, and only twenty-six letters, some letters must repre- 
sent more than one sound, or else some sounds must be rep- 
resented by a combination of these letters, both of which in 
practice are done. 

25. There are two ways of classifying these letters. First, 
according to the organs used in uttering, or enunciating them ; 
^Second, according to their articulation. 

26. Enunciation means speaking out ; Articulation means 
joining, literally, a little joint These words are frequently 
defined as having the same meanings, which is wrong; we 
need them for different uses, and hence, will use them as 
here defined. 

27. According to the organs used in uttering, or enun- 
ciating them, the letters are divided into Vowels and Con- 
sonants. 

28. The Vowels are so called because they are enun- 
ciated wholly by the organs of voice. They are A *E, I, 0, 
and U. Sometimes Y is used for I, and W for U; when so 
used they are to be regarded as vowels. 

29. The vowels represent sixteen of the primary sounds, 



Pkop. 20.] CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 1 95 

of which A represents four ; long a, as in fate ; open, Italian, 
or flat a, as in far ; long-broad a, as in fall ; and short a, as 
in fat. 

3 O. E has two sounds ; long e, as in me ; short e, as in 
met. 

3 1 . /has two sounds ; long i, as in pine ; short i, as in pin. 

32. has four sounds ; long o, as in no ; slender, or open 
o, as in move; long-broad o, as in nor; and short o, as 
in not. 

33. U has three sounds ; long u, as in tube ; broad, or 06- 
tuse, u, as in full ; and short u, as in tub. 

34. The sixteenth vowel-sound is represented by com- 
binations, as in our, loud, &c. 

35. The Consonants are so called because they can not 
be enunciated without the aid of the vowels, the word itself 
meaning sounded together. 

36. They are formed by the organs of voice and speech 
together, and are divided into Labials, or lip-letters; Den- 
tals, or teeth-letters ; Palatals, or . palate-letters ; and Double 
letters. 

37. The Labials are B, F, M, P, and V; the Dentals, 
D, L, N, T, and G, soft ; and the Palatals, are G and G, 
hard, K, R, and Q. 

38. The Double letter is X, composed of gz, or ks, as in 
exist, e^zist ; and exit, eksit. 

39. The letters S, Z, and G, soft, from the hissing sound 
made in pronouncing them, are called Sibilants, or hissing 
letters. 

40. IT, from the manner of producing it, is called a 
Breathing, or Aspirate, and is sometimes silent. 

4 1 . The Second mode of Classifying the letters is accord- 
ing to their articulation, by which they are divided into 

Vocals, Sub-vocals, and Non-articulates or Mutes, as they are 
commonly called. 

42. A Vocal has two articulations ; one before and the 



196 CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. [Book III. 

other after it. They are +A+, + JS+ 9 +I+, +0+ 9 
+ U+. 

Plus, in example forty-second, represents the Articulation and its 
place. 

Thus, the sound of A articulates with that of a Sub-vocal, or of a 
Non-articulate, whether before, or after it, by its own articulation ; as, 
-|-a-)-6=a6, b-\-a-\-=ba, -\-a-{-m=am, m-\-a-\-=ma, &c, of the other 
vocals. 

43. A Semi-vocal has but one articulation, which is al- 
ways after it. They are F+, H+, L+, M+, J\T+, £+, 
S-\-, and X+; each has a vocal before it, by which it is ar- 
ticulated. 

Thus, F and S unite with T, following them, by their own articula- 
tions ; as, aft=-\-a-\-f-\-t ; cast=c-\-a-\-s-\-t ; and=-\-a~\-n-\-d ; camp= 
c-\-a-\-m-\-p. 

44. The JVon-articulates, or Mutes have no articulations 
of their own ; hence, to unite with the others, they must be 
placed by the side of a letter having an articulation. They 
are, P, C, P, G, J, K, P, Q, T, V, W, T, and Z. 

Thus, if B and D come together, they do not unite ; hence, one of 
them must be silent ; as in bdellium, pronounced del-yum. 

45. Sometimes one letter is substituted for another; in 
such cases the substitute should be regarded as the letter, for 
which it is substituted ; as, Y for / in % ; / for Y in bilk'on ; 
W for IT in new ; U for W in langz^age. 

A method of using a distinct character to represent each sound in a 
language has been some time in use and is gradually gaining favor. It 
is called Phonography, or writing by sound. It possesses many ad- 
vantages over the present rude modes of spelling words, and of repre- 
senting sounds by letters, in which respect the English language is 
still in a half-civilized state. Phonography is worthy the careful study 
of all those, who would learn many things, wherein our language can 
and must be improved. 

46. When one or more of these letters, forming the whole, 
or a part of a word, can be uttered by a single impulse of 
the voice, it or they form a syllable. 

4:7 • Making letters in^p syllables is called Syllabication. 
48. Two vowels, forming the whole or a part of a syl- 
lable, are called a Diphthong or Digraph. 



Prop. 20.] SYLLABICATION — VERBATION. 197 

49. If the sound of both vowels be heard, they form a 
Proper Diphthong ; as, ou in sound, oi in boil ; if the sound 
of only one be heard, they form an Improper Diphthong ; as, 
ei in feign, ea in near. 

50. Three vowels in one syllable form a Triphthong, or 
Trigraph ; as, eau in beauty. 

5 1 . The time, which is required in speaking a syllable, is 
called its Quantity. According to this, syllables are Long, 
Short, and Doubtful. % 

52. A Long Syllable is one, on which the speaker may 
dwell at discretion. 

53. Long Syllables are of two kinds; those which are 
naturally long, the sign of which is the macron ; and those 
long by contraction, whose sign is the circumflex [ A ], which 
is the union of the acute and the grave accents, as, in e'er. 
(See p. 143.) 

5 4. A Short Syllable is pronounced in the least time re- 
quired to enunciate it distinctly. Its sign is the breve ; as in 
Cincinnati. 

55. The Doubtful Syllable is one which may be either 
long, or short. Its sign is the doubtful mark ; as in demoil- 
strate. 

56. The quantity of a syllable depends on its vowel- 
sounds ; but its quality or character as to euphony depends 
on its consonants. Every syllable must contain a vowel; 
but may, or may not contain a consonant. 

57. Making, or forming syllables into words is called 
Verbation, or word-making. 

For the classification of words according to formation, syllabication, 
and origin, see p. 144. 

5 8. Words, which undergo certain modifications, or 
changes of form to show their grammatical attributes, or 
properties, are called Declinable words ; those, which do not 
have these changes, are called Indeclinable words. 



198 VAKIABLE — DEFECTIVE — REDUNDANT. [Book ITT. 

59. Words are also divided into Variable, Defective, and 
Redundant. 

60. Words are variable in form, in signification, and in 
'pronunciation. 

a. Words, variable in form, are those spelled in two, or 
more ways ; as, segar or cigar, jingle or gingle, mould or 
mold, ancle or ankle, plough or plow. 

Probably no language contains as many words variable in form, a3 
the English. In respect to the uniformity and philosophy of its spel- 
ling, this language is still in its infancy.' For proof of this see any of 
its " Standard Dictionaries." 

b. A word, variable in signification, is one having two, or 
more meanings of a different class ; as, style, a manner of , 
writing ; title ; pin of a dial ; the pistil of plants. 

c. A word, variable in pronunciation, is one which may be 
pronounced in two, or more ways ; as, demonstrate or dem'- 
onstrate ; leis'ure or leisure, &c. 

6 1 . Words are defective when they do not have some of 
the forms, or modifications usual to the class, to which they 
belong. In the English, nearly all defectives are found among 
the verbs* 

.62. A word is redundant, which has two, or more forms 
or modifications, to show the same attribute or property ; as, 
wharf, which becomes wharfs, or wharves, -when more than 
one wharf is meant. 

The Classification and Properties which words derive 
from their Logical and Rhetorical analyses, and the Modifi- 
cations showing these, will be found in Booh Fourth, to which 
we now invite your attention. 



BOOK FOURTH. 
THE GRAMMAR OF LANGUAGE. 



PROPOSITION FIRST. 

1 . In the Grammatical Analysis of Sentential Lan- 
guage, we determine what classifications, and what 
properties or attributes words derive from their Logi- 
cal and Rhetorical uses. 

In the Logical Analysis, we mainly considered the thought ; 
in the Rhetorical, we considered the thought and language 
in their relations to each other ; and now, in the Grammati- 
cal, we shall see what classifications, what properties or at- 
tributes, and what modifications words take ; that is, in the 
Grammatical Analysis, we mainly consider the language. 
(See B. II., Prop, iii., and B. III., Prop, i.) 

2. The eight Rhetorical offices or uses of words 
give rise to eight Grammatical kinds or classes, which 
are called " The Eight Parts of Speech." 

Rhetorical. Grammatical. 

_, j Subjects and Objects are called Nouns ; also, 

( Words, limiting them, are called . .Nouns. 

Second. Relators Relators, or Prepositions. 

Third. Personators Pronouns. 

Fourth. Adjuncts of Nouns. Adjectives. 

Fifth. Affirmers Verbs. 

Sixth. Adjuncts of Words not Nouns, ...Adverbs. 

Seventh. Connectives Connectives, or Conjunctions. 

Eighth. Exclamatives Exclamatives, or Exclamations. 



200 PARSING BY ROTE. [Book IV. 

The older grammarians always started by dividing words, "accord- 
ing to their signification, or use," into the Parts of Speech; while many 
of the modern grammarians dogmatically assert, that there is a certain 
number of "Parts of Speech," without giving the basis of classification 
(Book I., p. 68). Very many begin by saying, that "A noun is the 
name of a person, place, or thing ; as, man, London, tree," without re- 
gard to the offices which these words fill in a sentence. 

The result is that pupils soon learn to parse words by rote. With 
them, man is " always a noun," even in the sentence, "Put a man-hole 
in the new boiler," in which man is only an adjunct of hole. Nine 
tenths of the pupils in our schools if told to parse the word, dock, would 
start by calling it a noun, because, " When I say, dock, I think of a 
certain thing" We reply, "You will think of the word just in that con- 
nection? in which you have become the most familiar with it" Another man 
hears the word, " dock" and thinks of diminished wages ; another thinks 
of a certain office, to him it is a part of Doc^-master. As in the fol- 
lowing sentence ; — 

The dock-master said he would dock the wages of every cfocfc-laborer, 
who did not appear on the dock in time. 

"But," says another, "if I look into a dictionary, I see the words 
all classified into the Parts of Speech. Dock, n., means that dock is a 
name ; dock, v., that dock is a verb, &c." This is quite a general mis- 
take and one, against which beginners should be warned. "Dock, n. t 
means that when dock is a noun, it means a certain thing ; dock, v., 
means that when dock is a verb, it means a certain act," &c. 

From neglecting to insist that pupils shall always classify words ac- 
cording to their Logical and Rhetorical uses, it happens that in parsing 
the sentence, "And is a conjunction," the pupil will begin, "And is a 
conjunction," &c. Even grammarians have fallen into the same grave 
error, as is unmistakably shown, when we are told that, "Adverbs 
may sometimes qualify nouns," and this too after having been told that, 
"An adverb is a word, which qualifies a verb, participle, adjective, or 
other adverb." As if, because a word is generally used as an adverb, 
it must needs always be an adverb, no matter how changed in its office. 
In the definition, quoted above, the word adverb is a common noun. 

In this treatise, we shall adhere unflinchingly to the principle that 
the basis for the Classification of words into the Parts of Speech is the 
office, or use of those words in given sentences, and that out of sen- 
tences, or as Phonographs, words belong to no Part of Speech. (B. III., 
Prop, viii.) 

The pupils should be required to give the Logical and Rhetorical 
analyses of the examples in the following propositions before applying 
the Grammatical analysis. This exercise will make them familiar with 
the relations ' of the three modes of analysis by a gradual and easy 
process. 



Prop. 2.] NOUNS. 201 



PROPOSITION SECOND. 

1. A. Noun is the name of a person, place, or thing, 
used as a subject, or as an object ; or to limit the mean- 
ing of a subject, or of an object. (See B. III., Prop. 
viiL, §2, 8, and 17.) 

EXAMPLES. 

1. James sent a trusty messenger with the message. XYZ. 
Analysis ; James is the Producer, used as the subject of an independ- 
ent sentence ; therefore, it is a Noun. 

Messenger is the Keceiver, used as the first object of sent ; therefore, 
it is a Noun. 

Message is a part of the act, used as the second object of sent ; there- 
fore, it is a Noun. # 

2. They were called St. Anthony's Falls, or the Falls of 
St. Anthony, by the explorers of that region. 

Analysis ; St. Anthony's belongs to the receiver, and is used tp limit 
the subject, Falls ; therefore, it is a noun. 

Of St. Anthony, belongs to the receiver, and is used to limit Falls ; 
therefore, it is a noun. 

Of region, belongs to the producer, and is used to limit explorers; 
therefore, it is a noun. 

3. Jane, Sarah, George, and William, reside with their 
parents in the town of Saratoga in the state of New York. 

4. " The girl, herself, made the correction, yesterday, be- 
fore the Recorder and said, ' her father's name was Harrison.' 
The girl's mother having married a second husband by the 
name of Taylor, explained the reason why the girl was com- 
monly called Sarah Taylor by her friends and acquaintances.'* 

5. Sugar has a pleasantly sweet flavor, which is called its 
sweetness. Sugar is used in making confectionery, and for 
the sweetening of cake. 

Nouns assist in Classifying ; thus, we have the general name Thing, 
applicable to all objects of sense, and of thought. In comparing things, 
wc observe that certain elements, or attributes arc the same in several 

9* 



202 PROPER NOUNS. [Book IV. 

different individuals ; to these we give a name, which serves to distin- 
guish them from all other things and at the same time to form them into 
Classes, the names of which are also nouns. Thus, we continue to di- 
vide and to name the classes until the differences become too few to en- 
able us to form classes upon them, when we begin to regard those prop- 
erties, or qualities, by which things are distinguished. 

3. Nouns are divided into two kinds ; the Proper, 
and the Common. 

2. A Proper Noun distinguishes one individual, or 
one class, from all other individuals, or classes of the 
kind named. 

6. General Schuyler was superseded by General Gates in 
Jane. 

Analysis ; Schuyler is the receiver, used as the subject of an independ- 
ent sentence, and is the name of an individual; therefore, it is a Proper 
Noun. Analyze Gates in the same manner. 

June belongs to the act, and is used as the second object of was super- 
seded, showing time when. It distinguishes one month from the other 
eleven ; therefore, it is a Proper Noun. 

7. The Alleghanies form a part of the Appalachian Sys- 
tem of mountains. 

Analysis; Alleghanies is the producer, used as the subject of a sim- 
ple, independent sentence. It distinguishes one class of mountains 
from all other classes of mountains ; therefore, it is a Proper Noun. 

8. The Americans are distinguished for enterprise. 
Analysis ; Americans is the receiver* used as the subject of a simple, 

independent sentence. It distinguishes one class, or nation, from all 
other classes, or nations of human beings ; therefore, it is a Proper 
Noun. 

4. A Proper Noun, used to distinguish a member of 
a family, is called a Given Name, or the Christian 

Name. 

9. George Washington commanded the American armies. 

Analysis ; George Washington is the producer, used as the subject of 
a simple, independent sentence. It distinguishes one man from all 
other men; therefore, it is a Proper Noun, of which George, the Given 
or Christian name, is used to distinguish him from all other Washing- 
tons. 



Pkop. 2.] COMMON NOUNS. 203 

10. Friday, the twenty-fifth day of December, was Christ- 
mas, and the next Friday, the first day of January, was New 
Year's Day. Thanksgiving-day was on Thursday, and the 
Fourth (Day) of July came on Wednesday. 

11. Washington's birth-day was celebrated on Monday, 
February 22, 1858. The procession of citizen-soldiers passed 
through Broadway, Fourteenth Street, Fourth Avenue, 
Bowery, Chatham Street, and Park Row ; and was reviewed 
in the City-Hall Park. 

5. A Common Noun is a name belonging to every 
individual of the same kind, and also to each of the 
different classes, or kinds. 

12. The pupils of this school recite in classes, and each 
pupil strives to become the best student in the class. 

Analysis ; Pupils is the producer, used as the subject of the first in- 
dependent clause of a compound sentence. It may J?e used to name 
the members of any other school, or each member of this school ; there- 
fore, it is a Common Noun. 

13. Each orator, hero, and statesman of former times has 
been the type of our modern orators, heroes, and statesmen. 

Analysis ; Orator is an actor, used as one of the subjects of a con- 
tracted sentence ; it may be used to name any one of a class, or a whole 
class [orators] ; therefore, it is a Common Noun. 

6. A noun, signifying one's country, or nation, is 
called a Patrial noun ; signifying one's race, a Gentile 
or Generic noun ; signifying one's parentage, a Patro- 
nymic noun, or a Family name, or a Surname. 

14. The Spaniards and the French are Celts, the Ger- 
mans are Goths. 

Analysis ; Spaniards is a producer, used as a subject in a contracted 
sentence. It shows country or nationality ; therefore, it is a Patrial 
noun. 

Celts is a first part, used as the second subject of are. It shows race, 
therefore, it is a Gentile or Generic noun. Analyze French as Spaniards 
is analyzed, and Goths as Celts. 

15. In this list of names, I find the Smiths, the Browns, 



204 PATRIAL — PATRONYMIC — GENERIC. [Book IV. 

the Wilsons, Mrs. Stuart, Miss Jones, Mr. Phelps, the Misses 
Morgan, and the Messrs. Jenkins. 

Analysis ; Smiths is the name of the receiver, used as the first object 
of find. It shows the family ; therefore, it is a Patronymic noun, or a 

Family name, 

7. Patrial, Patronymic, and Generic nouns are to 
be considered Proper nouns, when they signify the 
whole class or kind distinguished from others of the 
same species, or when they distinguish an individual 
from the class to which that individual belongs. (See 
ex. 14 above.) 

8 . Patrial and Patronymic nouns become Common 
nouns when they signify a part of the kind named, and 
at the same time may be applied to the other part. 

16. We meet Americans in England, Englishmen in 
France, Frenchmen in Turkey, Turks in Algiers, Algerines 
in Spain, and Spaniards in America. 

Analysis ; Americans is the name of the receiver, used as the first 
object of meet. It names a part of a nation, and may be applied to 
the other part also ; therefore, it is a Gentile Common noun. 

17. Edward, the Pretender, was a Stuart 

Analysis ; Stuart is the name of the first part, used as a second sub- 
ject of an independent sentence. It means a part of the family and 
may be used to name the other part ; therefore, it is a Patronymic Com- 
mon noun. 

9. Nouns, naming things, which have a sensible ex- 
istence, or are material, are sometimes called Nouns 
Substantive, or Substantive Nouns, or simply Substan- 
tives. « 

18. John struck the horse with a whip. 

Analysis ; John names the actor or X, and is used as the subject of 
a simple, independent sentence. It distinguishes a person from others 
of the same kind ; therefore, it is a Proper Substantive noun. 

10. Nouns, naming the qualities, or properties of 
things, are sometimes called Nouns Adjective, or Ad- 
jective Nouns. 



Prop 2.] VERBALS — SENTENTIALS — ADJUNCTIVES. 205 

19. Neatness, conciseness, and directness, are the essentials 
of strength and clearness in style. 

Analysis ; Neatness is the name of a first part or X, used as the sub- 
ject of a connected, contracted, compound sentence. It names some- 
thing, which does not have a sensible, or bodily existence ; therefore, it 
is an Adjunctive noun. 

1 1 . Nouns, derived from ajBrmers, are called Verbal 
Nouns. Some verbal nouns end in ing; these are called 
Participial Verbal Nouns. 

20. To err is human ; to forgive, divine. 

Analysis ; To err is the first part or X, used as the subject of the 
first clause of a compound sentence. It is here used in the place of 
error; therefore, it is a Verbal noun. 

21. Failing is oftener the result of doubting, than of at- 
tempting the performance of difficulties. 

Analysis; Failing is here used for failure ; doubting for doubt; at- 
tempting for attempt ; hence, they are Participial verbal nouns. 

12. Adjective and Verbal Nouns are called Ab- 
stract Nouns. See above, ex. 19, 20, 21. (P. 47, §3.) 

22. Faith, hope, and charity, are Christian graces. 

13. Dependent Subjective, and Objective sentences 
are called Sentential Nouns. -(P. 98,, §4.) 

23. " Will you ride, or walk to town to-day ?" may be read 
with several different emphases. 

24. I saw them carrying the timber. 

14. Names of persons, places, and things, used to 
limit the meanings of subjects^ and of objects, are 
called Adjunctive Nouns. (See p. 110, §17.) 

25. The fool's voice is as the continual dropping of water. 

Analysis ; Fool's is a part of the producer. It is the name of a per- 
son and is used as an adjunct of voice to limit its meaning ; therefore, 
it is an Adjunctive noun. 

Of water is a part of the first part, or X. It is the name of a thing, 
and is used as an adjunct of dropping to limit its meaning ; therefore, it 
is an Adjunctive noun. 



206 ATTRIBUTES OP NOUNS — GENDER. [Book IV. 

15. Nouns derive four Attributes or Accidents, 
called Gender, Person, Number, and Case, from the 
Logical and Bhetorical Properties and Uses of the 
parts which the nouns name, or represent. 

Attribute, literally meaning what is given to, is applied to those qual- 
ities or properties, which are given to names of things to enable them 
to represent corresponding qualities or properties, which the objects 
named really do possess ; thus, sex as a property of a being is repre- 
sented by gender as an attribute of the noun naming that being ; person, 
a property of a reality, by person, an attribute of the name of that 
reality ; quantity, a property of things, by number, an attribute of the 
names of quantity ; and the office or use of things is represented by case, 
an attribute of the names of those things. Observe carefully the differ- 
ence between a quality, a property, or a use of a thing, and an attri^ 
bute of the name of that thing, which attribute relates to, or represents 
the property only, as the name itself does the thing. 

1©. Gender is that attribute which nouns derive 
from the presence, or the absence of sex in the thing 
named. Gender literally means to beget, to produce. 

17. Nouns have four kinds of gender; the Mascu- 
line, the Feminine, the Common, and the Neuter. 

The first three depend on the possession of sex by the object named, 
the fourth on the want of it. 

a. The Mascidine gender is attributed to names of males. 

b. The Feminine gender. females. 

c. The Common gender. males and females. 

d. The Neuter gender things having no sex. 

Masculine comes from mas, a male, and culine, pertaining to. Femi- 
nine from femina, sl female, and ine, pertaining to. Common signifies 
two, or more. Neuter, not either. 

26. Your uncle and aunt live near my parents in the vicin- 
ity of Albany. 

Analysis ; Uncle is the first part, used as one of the subjects of a con- 
tracted sentence. It is a name which may be applied to any one of a 
class of males ; therefore, it is a common noun in the masculine gender ; 
in a similar manner analyze aunt, parents, vicinity, and Albany. 

Many object to a " Common Gender/ 5 who, nevertheless, use a 
"Neuter Gender;" while others, with more consistency, reject both. 
" If," say these, " gender means sex, then only the names of males and 



PfiOP. 2.] 



GENDER BY DIFFERENT WORDS. 



207 



females have gender." The error begins in using a false definition ; as, 
" Gender is sex." Gender is the attribute only, which relates to the 
presence and kind, or absence of sex in the thing named ; hence, gender 
is a more comprehensive term than sex. Sex relates to a particular 
property of living beings, animals, or vegetables ; gender is an attribute 
of the names of all objects, whether animate, or inanimate. In every 
language, there are certain words, which are to be used only as the 
names of males ; others as the names of females ; and others, which may 
be applied to either, or to both. Now, since these three distinctions are 
found in the use of words, it becomes absolutely essential for good 
scholarship that the learner be taught to use words correctly in this 
respect. Another reason is, that the same distinctions are found in other 
languages. 

27. Husband and wife are a " married couple," or " part- 
ners for life ;" father and mother are parents ; sons and 
daughters are children ; brothers and sisters are kindred ; and 
all may constitute a family and be relatives. 

Names of objects, without sex, have no gender ; or, if we wish to 
signify that the thing is neither male nor female, we say, it is in the 
Neuter gender, or Neither gender. 

1 8 . By far the greater part of English nouns have 
no modifications or changes of form to show their gen- 
der ; the few, which do have them are modified in three 
ways ; first, by Different Words; second, by Different 
Prefixes ; third, by Different Suffixes. 

First Gender shown by Different Words. 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Husband 


wife 


Beau 


belle 


King 


queen 


Boy 


girl 


Lad 


lass 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Master 


mistress 


Bull 


cow 


Milter 


spawner 


Bullock 


heifer 


Monk 


nun 


Cock 


hen 


Nephew 


niece 


Colt 


filly 


Ram 


ewe 


Drake 


duck 


Sloven 


slut 


Earl, Count 


countess 


Son 


daughter 


Father 


mother 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Steer 


heifer 


Hart 


roe 


Uncle 


aunt 


Horse 


mare 


Wizard 


witch. 



208 



GENDER BY PREFIXES — SUFFIXES. [Book IV. 



Second. Gender shown by Prefixing Words* 



Male. 
Man-kind 
Male-teacher 



Female. 
woman-kind 
female-teacher 



Male. 
Man-servant 
He-goat 



Female. 
maid-servant 
she-goat. 



Third. Gender shown by Different Terminations. 



Abbot 

Actor 

Adulterer 

Arbiter 

Auditor 

Author 

Baron 

Benefactor 

Canon 

Caterer 

Chanter 

Competitor 

Conductor 

Count, Earl 

Czar 

Deacon 

Demon 

Director 

Doctor 

Duke 

Editor 

Elector 

Emperor 

Enchanter 

Fornicator 

Founder 

God 

Governor 

Hebrew 

Heir 

Hermit 

Host 

Huckster 

Hunter 

Idolater 

Inheritor 

Instructer 

Jew 

Lion 



abbess 

actress 

adulteress 

arbitress 

auditress 

authoress 

baroness 

benefactress 

canoness 

cateress 

chantress 

competitress 

conductress 

countess 

czarina 

deaconess 

demoness 

directress 

doctress 

duchess 

editress 

electress 

empress 

enchantress 

fornicatress 

foundress 

goddess 

governess 

hebrewess 

heiress 

hermitess 

hostess 

hucks tress 

huntress 

idolatress 

inheritress 

instructress 

Jewess 

lioness 



Marquis 

Mayor 

Mediator 

Monitor 

Murderer 

Negro 

Orator 

Patron 

Peer 

Poet 

Porter 

Preceptor 

Priest 

Prince 

Prior 

Progenitor 

Procurer 

Prophet 

Protector 

Quaker 

Seamster 

Shepherd 

Songster 

Sorcerer 

Sultan 

Suitor 

Tailor 

Tempter 

Tiger 

Traitor 

Treasurer 

Tutor 

Viscount 

Votary 

Administrator 

Arbitrator 

Coadjutor 

Executor 

Testator 



marchioness 

mayoress 

mediatress 

monitress 

murderess 

negress 

oratress 

patroness 

peeress 

poetess 

portress 

preceptress 

priestess 

princess 

prioress 

progenitress 

procuress 

prophetess 

protectress 

quakeress 

seamstress 

shepherdess 

songstress 

sorceress 

sultaness, sultana 

suitress 

tailoress 

temptress 

tigress 

traitress 

treasuress 

tutoress 

viscountess 

votaress 

administratrix 

arbitratrix 

coadjutrix 

executrix 

testatrix. 



Sometimes, by a species of personification, inanimate objects 
are represented as having the masculine, or feminine gender ; 
as, The Sun is often personated by he; the sun ariseth, and 
he goeth down. The Moon, by she ; as, The moon is up, 



Prop. 2.] PERSON. 209 

how bright she shines. So, we say of a ship ; She sails well. 
This is very customary among the poets. 

When a brute is mentioned simply as an animal, or piece 
of property, it is frequently personified by it ; as, " If a man 
shall steal an ox, or a sheep, and kill it, or sell it." 

10. Person shows the relation of its noun to the 
narrator of the proposition. 

The narrator is the speaker, or the writer. • 

20. Nouns have three Persons, called the First, 
the Second, and the Third. 

' a. The First Person is attributed to the name of the nar- 
rator. 

28. / am Joseph. X TX. 

Analysis : Joseph is the first part, used as the second subject of an 
independent sentence, and is the name of a particular male, who is the 
narrator ; therefore, it is a Proper noun, a given name, in the masculine 
gender, first person. 

b. The Second Person is the attribute of the noun naming 
the one, to whom the narration is made. 

29. Brutus. Mark Antony, here, take you Caesar's body. 
Analysis ; Mark Antony is the only part expressed of a contracted 

sentence. It is the name of a particular male, who is addressed, or to 
whom the narration is made ; therefore, it is a Proper noun, in the mas- 
culine gender, second person. 

c. The Third Person is the attribute of the noun naming 
that, concerning which the narration is made. 

30. Heaven keep that monster from Othello } s mind. 
Analysis ; Heaven is the name of the actor, used as the subject of an 

independent sentence. It is the name of a place, used by synecdoche 
for its own ruler, concerning whom the narration is made ; therefore, it 
is a Proper noun, in the masculine gender, and third person. 

31. I, George Washington, do hereby permit you, Eliza 
Deane, to visit your parents, residing within the American 
lines. 

d. Narrators usually name themselves by using the per- 
sonators, J, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us. 



210 NUMBER. [Book IV. 

e. When the narrator addresses himself, as he would an- 
other individual, his own name has the second person ; when 
he narrates his own actions as those of another individual, 
his own name has the third person. 

32. Said I to myself, "Charles Green, mark my words, 
' You mean to be a good, clever fellow, but you miss it very 
often ; you know you do, Mr. Charles Green. 9 " 

Charles Green is in the second person, although really the name of the 
person speaking. 

In Cassar's Commentaries we find passages, similar to the following, 
written by Cassar, concerning himself. 

33. Caesar orders the troops to follow, but scarcely have 
these reached the hill-top, when Caesar perceives one ap-* 
proaching, who informs Caesar, &c. 

Here Ccesar is in the third person, although really the name of the 
writer. 

f. Those addressed are usually named by thou, thy, thine, 
thee, you, ye, your, yours. When the one, making the ad- 
dress, uses the name of the one addressed, as that of a third 
individual, that name has the third person ; thus, Mr. Brown 
says to Mr. Williams ; — 

34. Ah ! Mr. Williams ! I hope Mr. Williams is well to- 
day ! How is Mr. Williams 9 business ? Very happy to meet 
Mr. Williams. 

Williams is in the third person, although in reality the name of the 
person addressed, except the first Williams. 

35. Hear, land of cakes, and brother Scots ! 

•36. Friends! Romans! Countrymen! Lend me your ears. 

21. Number is the attribute, which a noun derives 
from the number of objects, which it names. 

22. Nouns have two Numbers ; the Singular and 
the Plural. 

a. The Singular Number is attributed to a noun naming 
but one of a kind, or but one class. 

37. A pupil, who learns every lesson and regards every 
rule, deserves the commendation of the teacher. 



Prop. 2.] PLURAL NUMBER. 211 

Analysis ; Pupil is the first part, used as the subject of an independ- 
ent sentence. It may be used as the name of any one, or all of a class, 
whether male or female. It names that, concerning which the narration 
is made, and means only one ; therefore, it is a Common noun, in tho 
Common gender, the third person, and the singular number. 

b. The Plural Number is attributed to a noun naming two, 
or more objects of the same kind. 

88. Pupils, who learn all the lessons, and regard all the 
rules, deserve the commendations of the teachers. 

Analysis ; ' Pupils — same as pupil in example thirty-seven, except 
that it means more than one ; and hence, is in the plural number. 

c. A noun, which is Singular in form and Plural in sig- 
nification, is called a Collective Noun, or a Noun of Multi- 
tude, 

39. The jury could not agree upon a verdict until they had 
asked the opinion of the court. 

Analysis; Jury is the first part, used as the subject of an independ- 
ent sentence. It is a general name, and belongs to that, concerning 
which the narration is made. It is singular in form, but plural in mean- 
ing ; therefore, it is a Collective Common Noun, in the masculine gen- 
der, third person, plural number. 

23. Nearly all English nouns have a modification, 
by which the Plural Number may be distinguished. 
This modification generally consists in adding s to the 
Singular ; but, when this would not produce a smooth 
sound, es must be added. 

EXAMPLES. 

I. Adding s. 

Singular. Plural. 

Sea seas 

House houses 

Cab cabs 

Day days 

Lad lads 
Monarch (ch hard) monarchs 

Eunuch eunuchs 





Adding es. 


Singular 




Plural. 


Bush 




bushes 


Box 




boxes 


Mattress 




mattresses 


Lens 




lenses 


Adz 




adzes 


Church (c/isoft) 


churches 


Fish 




fishes. 



212 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 



[Book IV. 



II. F and Fe Regular. F and Fe Irregular, changed to K 

Singular. Plural. 

Thief thieves 

Calf calves 

Wife wives 

Life lives 

Staff staves. 

Wharf (in England) wharfs. Wharf (in America) wharves. 

And many more in f and fe, unclassified. ff, is always regular ex- 
cept in staff, as a simple. 

III. Irregular by Changing Letters. 

Foot feet Man men 

Goose eeese Mouse mice 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Chief 


chiefs 


Gulf 


gulfs 


Fife 


fifes 


Strife 


strifes 


Flagstaff 


flagstaff's 



Tooth 
IV. 



teeth 



Louse 



lice. 



Brother (same family) 
Brother (same society) 
Die (for gaming) 
Die (for coining) 
Genius (spirit) 
Genius (talented) 



brethren 

brothers 

dice 

dies 

genii 



indices 
indexes 



peas 

pennies 

pence. 



Double in Form, or Redundant in Form, and Variable 
in Signification. 

Index (Algebraic) 
Index (Pointer) 
Pea (different kind) 
Pea (different seeds) 
Penny (the coin) 
geniuses. Penny (the value) 

S4. Many Nouns, derived from other languages, re- 
tain their original Plurals, and some have an English 
form in the Plural also. The singular generally ends 
in a, is, us, um, on, or x. They are derived princi- 
pally from the Latin and the Greek languages. 

I. Those in a, have the Plural in ce, or as. 

Formula formulae, or Minutia minutiae 

formulas Nebula nebulae 

Lamina laminae Miasma miasmata, or 

Larva larvae miasmas. 

II. Those in is. have the Plural in es. 



Amanuensis 

Analysis 

Antithesis 


amanuenses 

analyses 

antitheses 


Hypothesis 

Metamorphosis 

Crisis 


hypotheses 

metamorphoses 

crises 


Axis 
Basis 


axes 
bases 


Ellipsis 
Thesis 


ellipses 
theses. 



Prop. 2.] 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 



213 



III. Those in us, have the Plural i, or es. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Alumnus 


alumni 


Magus 


magi 


Focus 


foci 


Radius 


radii 


Fungus 


fungi, funguses 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Genus 


genera 


Ignis Fatuus 


Ignes Fatui. 


IV. Those in um, on, have the Plural in 


a, or urns and ons. 


Animalculum 


animalcula 


Gymnasium 


gymnasia, -siums 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Medium 


media, mediums 


Datum 


data 


Memorandum 


memoranda, -dums 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Momentum 


momenta, -turns 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Scholium 


scholia, scholiums 


Encomium 


encomia, -miums 


Stratum 


strata, stratums 


Erratum 


errata 


Speculum 


specula 


Automaton 


automata, -tons 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Criterion 


criteria, -rions 


Stamen 


stamina, stamens. 


V. Nouns, ending in x, 


have Plurals 


in ces, or xes. 


Apex 


apices, apexes 


Vertex 


vertices, vertexes 


Appendix 


appendices, -dixes Vortex 


vortices, vortexes. 


Calx 


calces 








VI. French Words. 




Beau 


beaux Monsieur, Mr. Messieurs, Messrs. 


Belle 


belles Mademoiselle, Miss. Mademoiselles, Misses, 



Madame, Mrs. Mesdames, Mrs. 

Mr., Master, boy, Masters Miss, a girl Misses, girls 

Mr., Mister, man, Messieurs Mrs., married woman, or women. 

Rule First. When two, or more of the same name are 
addressed, prefix the plural title. 

a. Mr. William Brown The Messieurs Brown 

b. Miss Jones and Miss Brown The Misses Jones and Brown 

c. Master James and Master John Masters James and John Brown 

Brown 

d. Miss Jane and Miss Ann Brown Misses Jane and Ann Brown. 

Rule Second/ When the words, two, three, fyc, are pre- 
fixed, pluralize the noun only. 

e. The two Mr. Smiths. The three Miss Fosters. 

VII. German Words. 
Child children Ox oxen. 



214 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. [Book IV. 

VIII. Hebrew Words. 
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Cherub cherubim, cherubs Seraph seraphim, seraphs. 

IX. 0, after a Consonant, adds es; but there are exceptions. 

Cargo cargoes Canto cantos 

Hero heroes Grotto grottos, -toes 

Negro negroes Motto mottos, -toes 

Volcano volcanoes Solo solos 

Wo woes And some others. 

X. T, after a Consonant, is changed into ies ; some exceptions. 
Lady ladies Regular forms ; Day days 

Fly flies Valley valleys 

Spy spies Joy joys, &c. 

Sicily Sicilies Some Proper nouns do not change. Henry Henrys 

Ptolemy Ptolemies Mary Marys. 

Alloquy Alloquies. Likewise, Colloquy, and Soliloquy. 

XI. Some Nouns have no Plural ; and hence, are said to be 

Defective in Number. 

Gold Pride "Wheat Wine 

Silver Meekness Rye Flour 

Tin, &c. Industry, &c. Barley, &c. Tea, &c. 

But some nouns of this class take plural forms to signify different 
kinds ; as, the wines of Europe, and the teas of China. 

XII. Some Nouns have no Singular; and are, therefore, 

Defective in Number. 

Ashes Scissors Clothes Vitals Nippers 

Bellows Shears Goods Bowels, &c. Tongs, &c. 

XIII. Some Nouns have the same Forms in both Numbers. 

Deer Salmon Brace Vermin 

Sheep Trout Dozen Hose 

Swine Fry Gross Yoke, &c. 

XIV. Some Nouns are Plural in Form, and Singular, or 
Plural in Meaning. These are Variable in Meaning. 

a. Names of the sciences in ics ; as Matheinat/cs, ethics, &c. 
6. Names of diseases and ceremonies in s ; as, Mumps, measles, nup- 
tials, &c. 

c. Alms, amends, news, pains (effort), odds, wages, &c. 



Prop. 2.] CASE — NOMINATIVE — OBJECTIVE. 215 

XV. Letters, Numerals, and Signs, form the Plural by an- 
nexing the Apostrophe and s ; as, the A's, the B's, the s's, 
the t's, the 2's, the 6's, the + % the — 'a. 

Hundred and thousand are pluralized, when used to mean an indefi- 
nite number; as, hundreds were saved, thousands were squandered; 
but after a numeral, they arc singular^ as, 5 hundred, 10 thousand. 

XVI. Compound Nouns, formed by joining a Noun and an 
Adjunct, pluralize the Noun ; those formed by uniting two 
Nouns, pluralize both. f 

Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp Man-servant men-servants 

Cousin-german cousins-german Knight-templar knights-templars 
Hanger-on hangers-on Handful (is regular) handfuls. 

95. Case is that attribute, which nouns derive from 

their Rhetorical Uses. 

2©. In the English language four Cases are used, 
called the Nominative, the Objective, the Possessive, 
and the Vocative, or Independent, or Absolute. 

Philosophically considered, there will always be as many cases in 
any language as it has different relators with the addition of a case for 
subjects and another for first objects ; because, that is the real number of 
different Rhetorical Uses (p. 110, §15). Hence, we see that the reason 
why one language appears to differ from another in the number of 
Cases is because in one of them, more of these cases receive special 
names than in the other. In the English, only four Cases are specially 
named; in the Latin, six; in the Greek, Jive, Most of the modern 
European languages have four Cases. 

a. The Nominative Case is attributed to the nouns, naming 
the subjects of all independent, and also the subjects of a few 
dependent sentences. 

b. The Objective Case is the attribute of a noun naming 
the subjects of some dependent, or the objects of all sentences. 

40. John struck the horse with a whip. X T Z. 

Analysis ; John is the Producer, used as the subject of a simple, in- 
dependent sentence. It names a particular male ; therefore, it is a 
proper noun. It is in the masculine, third, singular, and the Nomina- 
tive Case ; because to nouns naming the subjects of independent sen- 
tences, we attribute the Nominative Case. 



216 POSSESSIVE CASE. [Book IV. 

Horse is the Receiver, used as the first object of struck. It names 
a male and may be applied to all others in the same class ; therefore, it 
is a common noun. It is in the masculine, third, singular, objective 
case; because, to nouns used as objects, we attribute the Objective Case. 

c. The Possessive Case is attributed to a noun, used to 
limit, or restrict the application of another noun ; hence, the 
Possessive Case is the Adjunctive form of the noun. (See 
p. 110, §17.) 

27. The Possessive is the only Case, which is shown 
by a modification or change of form in the noun. This 
modification consists in prefixing the relator of or in 
suffixing an apostrophe [ ? ] and the letter s ; but, if 
the noun end in ce, s 9 or x, the apostrophe only is added. 

41. The father of John is John's father. X YX. 

Analysis ; Of John is a part of the Producer, used to limit or restrict 
the meaning of father; therefore, it is a noun. It has the masc, third, 
sing., and Possessive Case ; because, when one noun is used to limit the 
meaning of another, we attribute to it the Possessive Case. Analyze 
John's in the same manner. 

d. The two forms of the possessive sometimes differ in 
sense ; especially in proper nouns. 

42. Stories of Washington ; Washington's stories. 

The former signifies stories concerning Washington ; the latter, sto- 
ries told by Washington. 

e. Oftentimes an unpleasant recurrence of sounds may be 
prevented by using both forms of the possessive ; as — 

43. It is my brother's partner's mother's house; better 
say— 

44. It is the house of the mother of my brother's partner. 
* 45. Achilles' shield his ample shoulders spread. 

46. Who bore, by turns, Ajax' seven-fold shield. 

47. For goodness 1 sake ; see Jenkins' hat ! 

48. The mind of each man may be esteemed the sample 
of the minds of all other men. 

• 49. The president's bond was in the Mechanics' Bank. 
50. For peace' and for conscience' sake, restrain desire. 



Prop. 2.] PRINCIPLES OR RULES FOR CASES. 217 

« 
Some use the s, when the word does end in ce, s, or x; as, Mrs. 
Hemans's fine lines on the death of Fergus. Ross's discoveries. But 
the practice should be condemned on account of the disagreeable sounds 
thus produced. 

d. The Vocative, or Independent Case is attributed to nouns 
naming the persons, or things addressed. 

It is sometimes called the Nominative Independent, or Nominative Ab- 
solute. 

Those, preferring either of these names, can substitute it for the Voc- 
ative. Doubts may be entertained very reasonably as to nouns, when 
so used, ever being in the Nominative, 

51. Mr. President ! Ladies and 'Gentlemen ! For your 
kindness, &c. 

Analysis ; President is the name of a person addressed, or to whom 
the narration is made. It is the only part expressed of a simple, con- 
tracted sentence. It names one of the male sex, and it may be ap- 
plied to others of the same class ; therefore, it is a Common Noun. It 
has the masc, third, plu., and the Vocative Case; because, we attrib- 
ute the Vocative Case to a noun, used to name the object addressed. 



Special Principles, or Rules for Cases. 

First. Nouns, naming Subjects of Independent sentences^ 
are alwoiys in the Nominative Case, (p. 97, §2.) 

52. With easy course, the vessels glide. 

53. The cedars wave o'er Lebanon, but Judah's statelier 
maids are gone. 

Second. Nouns, naming subjects of subjective and of de- 
pendent connected sentences, not preceded by for have the 
Nominative Case. 

j 54. That waste begets want is no more trite than true. • 
{ 55. I heard that the boys ran. 

I Thxkb. Nouns, naming tie oljects of sentences, have the 
Objective Case, 

56. The gentle breeze wafted our barque gayly over the 
waters by moonlight, 

10 



218 PRINCIPLES OR RULES FOR CASES. [Book IV. 

Fourth. Nouns, naming the subjects of subjective and of 
dependent connected sentences preceded by for, and also the 
subjects of objective sentences, have the Objective Case, 

57. For men to lie is base. (See p. 98, §5.) 

58. John asked for a guide to show him the*way. (See 
p. 99, §7.) 

59. You saw the boy strike the child. (See p. 99, §7.) 

Fifth. Verbal and Sentential Nouns are considered as 
having the neuter gender, singular number, third person, and 
the Nominative, or the Objective Case, as their Rhetori- 
cal uses may require. Participials have the plurals. 

60. Dust thou art, to dust returnest was not spoken of the 
soul. 

61. You knew that he stole the goods. 

Sixth. Nouns, in the same sentence, having the same Rhe- 
torical uses, are said to be in Apposition. These always 
have the same Case. 

62. Thomas, the farmer, is usually called, " the Major." 

Seventh. When the quotation-marks are used, the fore- 
going principles are not to be applied; but the sentences 
must be taken in the words and forms used by the author. 

63. " Nathan said unto David, ' Thou art the man. 9 " 
Eighth. Adjunctive nouns have the Possessive Case. 

28. The Nominative Singular is sometimes called 
the Leading- Case of the noun. The other cases are- 
called the Oblique, or Secondary, and are said to be 
derived from, or to be from the nominative singular. 

64. The boy laid the girl's books on the teacher's desk. 

Boy is from boy, or from the same ; girVs is from girl ; books is from 
book, teacher's is from teacher, desk is from the same. 

65. A contented mind, and a good conscience will make a 
man happy in any condition of life. 

66. The Rev. Theodore Wake, Prof. Edward Simms, Dr 
William Banks, and Lawyer Bronson, reside in the village. 



Prop. 2.] 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



219 



29. The Arrangement of a Noun to show its dif- 
ferent Numbers and Cases is called 

The Declension op the Noun. 

Paradigms. 





SINGULAR. 


] 


PLURAL. 


Norn, fr Ob 


.* Possessive. 


Norn, fr Ob. 


* Possessive. 


Sea 


sea's, or of sea 


Seas 


seas', or of seas 


Cab 


cab's, of cab 


Cabs 


cabs', of cabs 


Bush 


bush's, of bush 


Bushes 


bushes', of bushes 


Lens 


lens', of lens 


Lenses 


lenses', of lenses 


Chief 


chiefs, of chief 


Chiefs 


chiefs', of chiefs 


Thief 


thief's, of thief 


Thieves 


thieves', of thieves 


Foot 


foot's, of foot 


Feet 


feet's, of feet 


Brother 


brother's, of brother 


Brothers 


brothers', of brothers 


Formula 


formula's, of formula 


Formulas, -as 


formulas', of formulas 


Axis 


axis', of axis 


Axes 


axes', of axes 


Stratum 


stratum's, of stratum 


Strata, turns 


strata's, turns', of — 


Apex 


apex', of apex 


Apices, exes 


apices', exes', of — 


Gold 


gold's, of gold 





. 


Industry 


industry's, of industry 














Scissors 


scissors', of scissors 








Goods 


goods', of goods 


Hundred 


hundred's, of hundred 


Hundred, -ds hundred, dreds', of — 


Thousand 


ti it 


tt tt 


<< << << 


8, t, + 


of 8, oft, of + 


8's, t's, +'s 


of 8's, of t's, of+'s 



The plural of letters, numbers, signs, &c, which is formed by ad- 
ding the apostrophe and s, must be distinguished from the same signs, 
when used to denote the Possessive Case. 

67. In writing be careful to dot the i's, and to cross the t's, 
and to make the q's and y's distinctly. 

The General Formida on page 220 presents an outline of 
the analysis of nouns. In using it, begin by putting the 
noun, to be parsed, in the place of the dash before the is, un 
der Logically, and trace it through the three Analyses. 

* The noun is not repeated here, being the same in the objective as 
in the nominative. 



220 



GENEBAL FOBMULA FOE NOUNS.. [Book IV 







o 

t— I 

N 

P3 

o 

pa 
o 

PS 



o 



Cj 03«h -P 

o t> 



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Frop. 2.] SUGGESTIONS — ANALYSES. 221 

First Suggestion. After a little practice, the repetition of the words, 
Logically, Rhetorically, Grammatically, may be omitted ; for, the student 
soon perceives that, we begin with the Logical ; introduce the Khetorical 
with the words, used as, and the Grammatical with therefore ; see for- 
mula. 

Second Suggestion. When the students have become familiar with the 
terms, gender, person, number, case, the adjunctive parts only need be 
used ; thus, instead of saying, masculine gender, third person, singular 
number, &c, say, masculine, third, singular, &c. The other parts can 
scarcely fail to be known. 

Third Suggestion. When, in declining a noun, the case of the noun 
under consideration is reached, let the pupil signify it by some such 
word as Here ! This will insure attention to the Paradigms. 

68. Lord Byron^ the author- of Childe Harold's Pilgrim- 
age, was the only son of Captain John Byron. Formula X Y, 
or modified XX TX. 

Translation — X, Lord Byron ; X, the author of Childe Harold's 
Pilgrimage ; Y, was ; X, the only son of Captain John Byron. 

Analysis in full; Logically; Lord Byron is the First Part, or 
Producer ; Rhetorically used as the Subject of a simple, independ- 
ent sentence. It names a particular male, concerning whom the narra- 
tion is made; Grammatically, therefore, Lord Byron, [It] is a Proper 
noun. It is from Lord, a Titular noun showing rank, and Byron, a 
Patronymic Family name. It has the Masculine gender, Third person, 
Singular number, and the Nominative* Case ; because it is the subject 
of an Independent sentence. First Special Principle. Nouns, naming 
subjects of Independent sentences have the Nominative Case. It is 
declined ; Singular, Nominative, Lord Byron, Here ! Objective, Lord 
Byron ; Possessive, Lord Byron's, or of Lord Byron ; Plural, Nomi- 
native and Objective, Lords Byron, or Lord Byrons, or Lords Byrons ; 
Possessive, Lords' Byron, of Lord Byrons, &c. 

Contracted Analysis ; Lord Byron is the First Part, used as the sub 
ject of an Independent sentence ; therefore, it is a Noun. It is from thi 
same ; masculine, third, singular, and nominative ; First Special Prin- 
ciple ; Nouns naming, &c. It is declined ; singular, &c. 

Author is the First Part, used in apposition with Lord Byron ; there- 
fore, &c. 

Of Pilgrimage is a part of the First Part, used to limit the subject, 
author; therefore, it is a noun. It is from the derivative noun, pilgrim- 
age, which is a common, abstract noun. It is neuter, third, singular, 
and possessive ; because it is used to limit author. Eighth Special 
Principle. When one noun is used to limit another it has the Posses- 
sive Case. It is declined, Singular, Norn, and Obj., pilgrimage; 



222 SUGGESTIONS — PREPOSITIONS. [Book IV. 

Poss., pilgrimage's, or of pilgrimage, Here! Plural, Norn, and Obj., 
pilgrimage ; Poss., pilgrimages', or of pilgrimages. 

Childe Harold's belongs to the First Part, and is used to limit pil- 
grimage ; therefore, it is a noun. It is from Childe Harold, and is a 
Patronymic, Proper noun; Childe being the Given, and Harold the 
Family name. It is masc., third, sing., possessive; Eighth Special 
Principle. When a noun, &c. It is declined, &c. 

Fourth Suggestion.' The best examples for farther practice in ana- 
lyzing nouns may be found by turning back to Book Second, Proposi- 
tion Fourth, and analyzing the nouns in the examples found there; 
in addition to these, take the examples in the first twelve Propositions 
of Book Third. This will both review the three analyses, and also 
make the pupil familiar with their relations to each other, if, before 
analyzing the nouns, the Logical analysis and its Translation be given 
in full; thus, we find the first example is — 

Horses run. Formula, X Y. Translation — X, Horses ; Y, run. 

Analysis ; Horses is the name of the actor or X, used as the subject 
of an Independent sentence, and signifying several of the male sex, of 
which the narration is made ; therefore, horses is a Common, Substantive 
Noun. It is masc, third, plural, and in the nominative; Subjects of 
Independent sentences are always in the nominative. It is declined ; 
Singular, Nom. and Obj., horse; Poss., horse's, or of horse ; Plural, 
Nom., horses, Here! Obj., horses; Poss., horses', or of horses. 

Fifth Suggestion. Much pains should be taken to see that the student 
uses correct expressions while analyzing. If these be original, so much 
the better. The analyses given w. the book are merely to exhibit modes , 
not to dictate what words are to be used. Make thinkers; do not 
make parrots. 



PROPOSITION THIRD. 

1 . Prepositions or Relators are words used ; first, 
to show the relations of second objects to their af- 
firmers ; second, to show the relations of adjunctive 
nouns to the nouns' which they limit ; and third, to 
show the relation of affirmers to their subjects, when 
used in a general sense. 

2. That part%to which the relation is shown, is 
called the Antecedent Term of the relation ; that, whose 
relation is shown, is called the Subsequent Term of the 
relation. 



Prop. 3.] PREPOSITIONS OR RELATORS. 223 

1. The lady, in haste, made clothing for the poor children 
with her own hands from the materials sent to her by the 
society. X Y Z. 

Translation — X, The lady; ; Z, clothing; the rest, Y. 

Analysis ; In is a part of the act, used to show the relation of the 
subsequent term, haste, to the antecedent term, made; therefore, In is a 
Preposition or Relator. In like manner, analyze for, with, from, to, 
and by. 

2. The votes of the people enable the judges to determine 
the people's will. 

Formula. XY . Translation — X, the people's votes; Y, en- 
able ; Z=X YZ. X, the judges ; Y, to determine ; Z, the will of the 

people. 

Analysis ; Of is a part of the act, used to show the relation of the 
subsequent people, to the antecedent, votes; that is, we know by the use 
of this relator, that people is used to limit or to restrict the meaning of 
votes ; therefore, of is a Preposition or a Relator ; according to the defi- 
nition given above. 

a. Hence, Of when used to show the relation of an ad- 
junctive noun, may be regarded as one of the signs, or modi- 
fications of the Possessive Case. 

To is a part of the act, used to show the relation of the subsequent 
determine, to the antecedent, judges ; that is, by its use, we know that 
judges is the subject of determine ; therefore, according to Prop, iii., to 
is a Preposition or Relator. 

b. Hence, To, when used to show the relation of an af- 
firmer to its subject, may be regarded as a sign or modifica- 
tion of an affirmer, used in its general sense. When to is so 
used, it is understood or omitted after bid, dare, see, feel, let, 
and a few others, used as affirmers. (See p. 118, Fifth.) 

3. He bids me/^come. He bids me to come. 

c. When the second object precedes the first, the relator is 
usually understood ; as — 

4. William gave/\him a fine present. That is, gave to 
him. 

3. The relation of the Second Object to the affirma- 
tion is always through a Preposition either expressed, 



224 WRONG USE OP PREPOSITIONS. [Book .IV. 

or understood ; ^nd this preposition, as its name im- 
plies, should precede the second object, (p. 110, §14.) 

d. In prose, when the preposition is at the end of the sen- 
tence, there is at least one and probably may be three errors. 

5. These conditions were insisted on. 

This is illogical ; on should show the relation between conditions and 
insisted ; but the attempt is made to use conditions as a subject, which 
can not be done, because it is neither a producer nor a receiver. (See 
p. 105, also 106, §6.) 

6. You saw him, whom I gave it to. 

This violates the Rhetorical principle stated in section third above ; 
the preposition should precede the subsequent term. 
You saw him, io whom I gave it. 

7. Who were provided for by this arrangement ? 

In this example, we find three kinds of errors. First. It is illogical. 
Who belongs to the act, and hence, can not be made a subject without 
altering the statement. (See p. 106, $3.) 

Second. It is not rhetorical. The relator should precede who. 

Third. It is ungrammatical. Who is the subsequent of for, and 
hence, should be whom. 

Study carefully the following examples. They contain very com- 
mon and yet very gross errors, and should be condemned as much for 
their awkwardness, as for being illogical. 

8. " In the consideration of this subject, the fact must not 
be lost sight of" 

9. " This course should be insisted on." 

10. " Certain studies must be gone through with, before 
certain other studies are entered upon." 

e. The preposition and its subsequent term are frequently 
contracted into one word ; as — 

11. He labors with zeal; He labors zealously, (p. 118.) 

/. When the producer is used as the second object, by is 
used as the Relator. 

12. Labor gains wealth ; wealth is gained by labor. 

13. He was killed with the blast ; that is, by the blast. 

g. Sometimes two prepositions are used together ; in this 



Prof. 3.1 USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 225 

case, supply the omitted part; or, if this be inconvenient, take 
them together, as a compound preposition ; as — 

14. The place is over beyond Jordan. 

15. He hath also set the one over against the other. 

In the fourteenth and fifteenth examples, the relators may be con- 
sidered as Compounds, 

16. Heaven from above smiles on the scene. 

That is, Heaven from the sky above us smiles on the scene. 
h. At is used to show the relation 'of home, places of resort, 
and smaller towns ; as — 

17. I board with my parents at home ; last year I was at 
the Springs ; before that I was at Washingtonville. 

i. Action, or state in regard to three, or more is expressed 
by among, amongst, amid, amidst; in regard to two, by be- 
tween and betwixt ; as — 

18. Amid those forest shades, that proudly reared 
Their unshorn beauties toward the fav'ring skies, 
An axe rang sharply. 

19. Betwixt me and thee let there be no strife. 

Action, or state continuing through a certain time, is ex- 
pressed by during ; continuing only a part of the time men- 
tioned, by in, or within ; as — 

20. The bells were rung during the whole tinfe of the fire. 

21. During yesterday ten vessels came into port, which is 
more than the number within the twenty days preceding that 
time ; another is expected in the night, or at an early hour 
in the morning. 

In reading, the student should notice carefully the mode, in 
which the different prepositions are used, which will often be • 
found faulty even in the works of " the best writers ;" Of is 
frequently used instead of from ; with instead of by ; to in- 
stead of at, &c. 

22. I had it of James ; that is, from James. 

23. He was to school yesterday ; that is, at school. 

10* 



226 PRONOUNS — FIRST PERSON. [Book IV. 



PROPOSITION FOURTH. 

1. A Pronoun is a word, used in the place of one, 
or more words, either for convenience, or for euphony. 
That, which is personated, is called the Antecedent of 
the Pronoun. (See p. 113, §22.) 

The Pronoun is not a primary part of speech ; nor is it absolutely 
necessary ; nevertheless, it is both convenient and pleasing. Children 
learn to use the pronoun very slowly, because it is so artificial; 
hence, the child says; "Give Willie Willie's ball," instead of, give me 
my ball. 

Unlike all, or any of the other Parts of Speech, the Pronouns are 
conventional and may, to a certain extent, be taught by lists of the 
words which may be used as such; that is, we agree that certain words 
shall be used as pronouns, and that to each of these words shall be at- 
tributed a certain person, number, and case, and, in the third person of 
the English, gender also ; so that when a Pronoun is used, we may al- 
ways know three of the attributes of the noun personified ; hence, we 
have the following Rules. 

Rule First. Pronouns, by their forms, show the Person, 
Number, and Case of the nouns personated ; and, in the third 
"person singular of the English, they show the gender also. 

2. Pronouns are of two kinds ; Simple and Com- 
pound. 

That class of words usually known as Adjective Pronouns, or Pro- 
nominal Adjectives may be found under Adjectives, together with our 
reasons for not considering them as- in anywise performing the offices 
of Personators. (See p. 113, §22.) 

3. Simple Pronouns are primitive words, selected 
to represent nouns in the different persons, numbers, 
and cases. 

a. The following words are used to personate the names 

of the narrators ; or for the First Person, (p. 209.) 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

First Person \ ™&*"i * me m 7> mine - of me - 

( Flurat; We us our, ours, of ours. 



Prop. 4.] PRONOUNS — SECOND PERSON. 227 

1. I, the Preacher, was king over Israel in Jerusalem. 
Analysis; I personates the name of the First Part or the narrator, 

Preacher, which name is used as the subject of an independent sen- 
tence ; therefore, / is a Pronoun. Its form shows the first person, sin- 
gular number, and the nominative Case, because Preacher, the word 
which it personifies, has these attributes ; Rule First. Pronouns by 
their forms, &c. 

It is declined; Si?ig., Nom., I, Here! Obj., me; Poss., my, mine, 
of me; Plural, Nom., We; Obj., us; Poss., our, ours, of us. 

2. Ah ! could / hide me in my song. 

3., /and my brother have been to visit our parents. We 
found them expecting us, as they had received my letter in 
due time. 

4. I have paid for my books ; hence, they are mine. 

5. When our hatred is violent, it sinks us beneath the level 
of the brutes.- 

By the Rhetorical figure called Communication, the name of a ruler, 
speaker, or writer, is personated by the plurals We, us, &c. (p. 184, §8.) 

6. We, George the Third, to our most loyal subjects, send 
greeting. Whereas, it hath seemed to us good, &c. 

b. The following words are used to personate the names 

of those, to whom the narration is made, or for the 

Nom. Obj. Possessive. 

{ Sinaular • i Thou thee th ^ thine; of thee ' 

Second Person I y ' \ You you your, yours ; of you. 

t Plural ; You, ye you your, yours ; of you. 

Thou is used for the singular in solemn, and in impassioned or affec- 
tionate address ; and hence, is often used by the poets. It is also used 
in common conversation by the Friends, who sometimes improperly 
substitute thee for thou. 

7. Thou shalt guide me with thy counsel, and I will obey 
thee. Yet the glory be thine. 

Analysis ; Thou personates the name of the person addressed, which 
is used as the subject of an independent sentence ; therefore, thou is a 
Pronoun. Its form shows the second person, singular number, and the 
nominative case ; because the noun it personates has these attributes ; 
Rule First. Pronouns by their forms, &c. 

8. Dost thou know the difference between thy hat and 
mine ? If this hat be thine, then this is mine. 



228 PRONOUNS — THIRD PERSON. [Book IV. 

9. Jesse, you, and William, may bring your books to me, 
and I will hear you read your lesson. 

Formerly mine and thine were used before words, beginning with a 
vowel ; they are so used now in a solemn, and in impassioned address, 
and by the poets ; as — 

10. Touch not mine anointed and do my prophets no harm. 

11. That I may rejoice in the gladness of thy nation; that 
I may glory with thine inheritance. 

12. Thou hast called me thine angel in moments of bliss. 
Still thine angel I'll be 'mid the horrors of this. 

c. The following words are used to personate the names 
of those, concerning whom the narration is made, or for the 

Norn. Obj. Possessive, 

( Masc. He him his, or of him. 

( Sing. ; < Fern. She her her, hers, of her. 

Thied Person } ( Neut. It it its, of it. 

( Plural Numb. ; They them their, theirs, of them. 

13. Father is as w r ell as usual. He desires you to get his 
watch and send it to him together with the bill for repairing 
it Mamma has read the books and was greatly pleased with 
them ; the more so, because, as she said, it gave her so much 
gratification to think that they had been read by her absent 
son. Be assured your parents do not forget you ; indeed, it 
is scarcely possible for you to think of them as often as they 
mention you in their daily conversation. 

After the Possessive forms mine and thine, except in solemn and in 
impassioned address, and also after hers, ours, yours, and theirs, the nouns 
limited are usually understood. His may be used both ways ; as — 

14. Is charity more a duty of mine, than of yours, or of 
his f • 

The contraction in example fourteenth is probably from the follow- 
ing. Is charity more a duty of my duties [one of my duties], than of 
your duties, or of his duties ? That is, the of is not really the relator 
of mine, yours, and his; but of the word duties understood after each of 
these words. 

15. The labor is thine, but the credit is mine. 
The labor is thy labor, but the credit is my credit. 



Prop. 4.] SPECIAL USES OF PRONOUNS. 229 

1G. My task is done, while yours is yet unfinished. , 
My task is done, while your task is yet unfinished. 

17. His is an easy task. His task is easy. 

The words, used to personate nouns in. the second and third persons, 
are sometimes used in a general sense ; as — 

18. Ye, sons of Adam, vain and young, 
Indulge your eyes, indulge your tongue. 

19. He, who lives within his means, never can be poor. 

20. She will ever be pleasing, who is ever modest and vir- 
tuous. 

21. They, who tell you the faults of others, intend to tell 
your faults to others. 

It, beside being used to personate a neuter noun, is used in a variety 
of ways ; — 

First. It may be used to personate a Sentential noun. (p. 205, §13.) 

22. It is good and comely for one to eat and to drink. 

For one to eat and to drink is good and comely. 

When used as in example twenty-second, it is said to be used In- 
ceptively, or to be Inceptive. That is, used to make a beginning. 

23. It was on the fourth of July, 1776, that the Continental 
Congress agreed to the Declaration of the Independence of the 
thirteen United Colonies.- 

It personates all after 1776. 

Second. As an Inceptive, It may personate a word in any gender, 
person, number, or case ; as — 

24. It is I. It was he. It could not have been he. It 
might have been she. It was they. 

25. It was Jane. It could not be John. It was they, the 
men themselves. It is the hour. 

Third. It is sometimes used Vaguely ; as — 

26. It rains. It snows. It is time to go to school. 

Fourth. It sometimes personates Expletively, or as an Expletive. That 
is, as something to Jill up. 

27. Come sirs ; fight it out. 

28. Come, and trip it as you go. 



230 SPECIAL USES — -COMPOUND PRONOUNS. [Book IV. 

His was the old possessive form of it, and is so used in the Bible : 
and also in works written as late as the sixteenth century. 

29. Look not thou on the wine, when it is red, when it 
giveth his color, &c. 

30. " But 'tis not so above ; there is no shuffling ; there the 
action lies in his true nature." — Shakspeare. 

Eule Second. In a compound contracted sentence, whose 
clauses are joined by an extending connector, two or more 
nouns in the singular must be 'personated by a plural pronoun, 

31. Julia and Anna sing very sweetly, and they deserve 
much praise for their perseverance while learning. 

The above contracted sentence, if expanded, would read ; Julia sings 
very sweetly, and she deserves, much praise for her perseverance while 
learning, and Anna sings very sweetly, and she deserves much praise 
for her perseverance while learning. If the connective and, before 
Anna, were a limiting, or subjunctive, the pronouns they and their would 
be she and her. (p. 114, §23.) 

Rule Third. In figurative language, the Pronoun 
must show the properties of the word personated taken in its 
figurative sense, 

32. I saw the moon in the sky leading her virgin host. 

Moon is personified in the second degree, and hence, we have her for 
its. For examples to illustrate Rule Third, see page 176, &c. ^* 

Suggestion. When analyzing pronouns, tell the logical and rhetorical 
properties of the nouns, which are personated ; as — 

33. John wrote to his sister Jane, that she might expect a 
visit from their parents as soon as she reached her new home. 

Analysis; His personates, John's, which is a part of the act, used to 
limit the meaning of sister ; therefore, it [or his] is a Pronoun ; &c. 

4. Compound Pronouns are used ; first, intensively, 
or to emphasize an antecedent noun, or pronoun; sec- 
ond, reflexively, or to recall the antecedent. 

R. The Compound Pronouns are formed by adding 
self, selves, and own, to the Objective and Possessive 
Cases of the Simple pronouns. 



Prop. 4.] INTENSIVE — REFLEXIVE — PERSONS. 231 

Self and selves are written as suffixes of the parts to which 
they belong ; own, is written separately. 

34. Intensively. Lawyer. " Did you say that you have 
known the plaintiff, himself, and the defendants, themselves, 
for years ?" 

Witness. " Yes ! I have known the plaintiff, himself, and 
the defendants, themselves, for years." 

Analysis ; Himself personates plaintiff's self, or plaintiff's person, 
and is used to emphasize, or call attention to plaintiff; therefore, it is 
a Compound Pronoun used intensively. 

35. Reflexively. My son, if thou claimest justice for thy- 
self be sure that thou doest that justly, which others claim 
for themselves. 

a. The Compound Pronoun in the First and Second Per- 
sons is formed by adding self or own in the Singular, and 
selves or own in the Plural, to the Possessive Case of the 
Simple Pronoun. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

"First Person i Sin 9 ular ; Myself myself my own. 

\ Plural ; Ourselves ourselves our own. 

( «. 7 ( Thyself thyself thine own. 

Second Person J ^ m 9 uiar > j Yourself yourself your own. 

( Plural ; Yourselves yourselves your own. 

Of may be used before myself, ourselves, &c., as a Possessive form 
of the Compound Pronouns. 

b. The Compound Pronoun in the Third Person, Nomina- 
tive, and Objective, is formed by adding self in the Singular, 
and selves in the Plural to the Objective Case of the Simple 
Pronoun. The Possessive is formed by adding own to the 
Simple Possessive. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

C ( Masc. Himself himself his own. 

t»tttt>t^ t»t^^c.^xt J Singular \ Fern. Herself herself her own. 

IhirdI-erson^ ( Neut. Itself ; itself its own. 

I Plural Number. Themselves themselves their own. 

Grammarians generally regard the English Compound Pronoun as 
defective in Case and describe it as wanting the possessive. But this 
exception is true in the written form only ; since in use, own must be 
admitted to have the same influence as self, or selves. 



232 ADJECTIVES. [Book IV. 

36. As I walked with myself, I talked with myself, 
And myself said unto me ; 

" Beware of thyself, take care of thyself, 
For no one will take care for thee " 

37. I myself saw him do it. 

38. I shall never forgive myself for this evil deed. 

39. Charles, is that your horse? Yes. Your own horse? 
Yes, my own horse. 

40. I, the Psalmist, communed with mine own heart. 

41. Ye are not your own masters, O Athenians ! 

42. If the men themselves deny it, we ourselves can 
prove it. 

43. Since you are his parents, you yourselves must pro- 
vide for him. 

44. Whom do the men censure ? It was their own fault. 

45. Cassius. " Myself have to mine own turned enemy ; 
this ensign here of mine was turning back; I slew the cow- 
ard and did take it from him." 

For farther exercise in analyzing Pronouns, see Personators, p. 113; 
also, the Extracts in Book V. 



PROPOSITION FIFTH. 

1 . An Adjective is an adjunct of a Noun, used to 
name the quality ', quantity, and position of that which 
is named by the Noun, and also to mark or designate 
the Noun itself. (See p: 110, §16.) • 

1. " I have only one poor boon to beg." 

Analysis ; One is a part of the receiver, used as an adjunct of boon, 
showing quantity ; therefore, it is an Adjective. Adjuncts of Nouns are 
called Adjectives. 

Poor is to be analyzed like one, except that it names a quality of the 
thing, named by boon. 

2. " In this disguise, well instantly go to seek the king." 
Analysis ; This is a part of the act, and is used as the adjunct of 

disguise, which it marks or designates ; therefore, it is an Adjective. 
Analyze the in the same way. 



Trop. 5 ] VERBAL — SIMPLE — COMPOUND. 233 

2. Adjectives, derived from affirmers, are sometimes 
called Verbal, or Participial Adjectives. 

Nouns name the things themselves, or their properties and actions, 
considered separately from the things ; hence, we have Nouns Substan- 
tive, and Nouns Abstract. Adjectives, excepting those which mark or 
designate nouns, name properties connected with the things which the 
nouns name. (See p. 204, §9.) 

3. Different kinds of sweet apples differ in sweetness. 

In this example, sweet- is the Noun-Adjective; apples, the Noun-Sub- 
stantive ; sweetness, the Noun- Abstract. 

Nouns classify by naming the substance, or essential, or by naming 
the properties separate from the substance, or essential ; while Adjec- 
tives classify by naming properties existing with that which the Noun 
names. Hence, we see that every Adjective is the result of perceiving 
some new basis of classification. (See p. 68.) 

4. Mice eat. Classification by naming the essential, mice. 
Little mice eat. Classification by naming a property — size. 
Little, brown mice eat. Classification according to color. 
Little, brown, wild mice eat. A property — habits. 
Little, brown, wild, young mice eat. 

3* Adjectives are classified according to their Forma- 
tion, Use, and Form. 

4. According to Formation, Adjectives are either 
Simple, or Compound. 

5. A Simple Adjective is one which is expressed by 
a single word ; as — 

5. A wise and good man is a great man. X TX. 

6. A Compound Adjective is expressed by two, or 
more words, written as one word, or joined by a hyphen. 

6. The Inland and the innermost towns are pleasant. 

7. " On a stern, and rock-bound coast." 

8. " The Southernmost point is in the ox-bow bend of the 
river." 

The use of the hyphen, when the words are not written together, 
prevents ambiguity. Suppose we have Water-lilies, from White-Pond. 



234 ADJECTIVES — PEOPER — COMMON. [Book IV, 

9. White Pond water lilies. Ambiguous. 
White-Pond water lilies. Ambiguous, 

White Pond-water lilies. 
White-Pond-water lilies. 
White-Pond water-lilies. Definite. 

10. The beauteous May Queen. The beauteous-May 
Queen. The beauteous May- Queen. 

Compound Adjectives may be formed to almost any extent ; as, 
three-cornered, four-cornered ; one-sided, two-sided, &c. 

7. According to Use, Adjectives are Proper and 
Common. 

8. Proper Adjectives name those properties, which 
distinguish a single individual, a class, or a nation from 
other individuals, classes, or nations* of the same kind. 

11. The American people are mostly descendants from 4he 
English,. Scotch, Irish, and German. 

12. The Ciceronian style of eloquence has many admirers. 

13. John has read of Platonic love, and Socratic wisdom. 

14. The Hungarian nation was overpowered by the Rus- 
sian and the Austrian nations. 

15. The inhabitants of Sweden are called the Swedish 
people, or the Swedes. 

16. The Danish people or the Danes live in Denmark. 

17. When you are in Rome, do as the Romans, or as the 
Romish people do. 

18. European, Asiatic, African, and American productions 
are articles of commerce. 

9. Common Adjectives name those properties, which 
belong to each individual in a class, or to each of the 
different classes, &c. 

The distinction between the Proper and the Common Adjective is the 
sambas that between the Proper and the Common Noun. Both showing 
the distinction between a certain individual, and all other individuals of 
the same kind. The Noun does this by naming an essence, a substance, 
or an abstract property ; the Adjective by naming a concrete property. 
(See Book I., Prop, vii.) 



Prop. 5.] DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES — OF QUANTITY. 235 

10. Common Adjectives are divided into the De- 
scriptive and the Designating. 

1 1 . Descriptive Adjectives name the quantity ', qual- 
ity, position, duration, form, &c. ? of that which is 
named by the Noun. 

19. Quantity. These ten men did more work, and in less 
time, than fourteen men did before. 

20. "Much study is a weariness of the flesh. Let us hear 
the conclusion of the whole matter." 

21. Quality. Evil deeds cause painful emotions in a good 
man's soul. 

22. "And, with some sweet, oblivious antidote." 

23. Should a gothie cottage be surrounded by a wooden, 
or a stone, or an iron fence ? 

24. Position. An inclined line is neither an horizontal, nor 
a vertical line. 

25. Parallel lines are equally distant at all corresponding 
points. 

26. The Western part of Massachusetts joins the Eastern 
part of New York. The former /\i$ one of the ifostem/^and 
the latter /\onQ of the Middle States. 

27. Every place is soi^A of the North pole. 

28. Duration. ^Eternal life, and endless bliss are theirs." 

29. Very many daily, semi-tveekly, and weekly papers, and 
also many monthly, and quarterly periodicals are published. 

30. Form. Oval and elliptical figures resemble circular 
figures. 

31. The spreading trees and winding streams of a mount- 
ainous country form a diversified landscape. 

a. Adjectives are used with Sentential Nouns. 

32. To die in defence of the truth is glorious. 

In this example, glorious is the Adjunct of the Sentential Noun, to die in de- 
fence of the truth. ' (See p. 205, §13.) 

13. Descriptive Adjectives of Quantity are dfrided 
into two Classes ; those showing an Indefinite, and 
those showing a Definite quantity. 



236 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. [Book IV. 

33. Quantity Indefinite. At the large Fairs, we usually 
see many things, which are better than the ordinary kinds. 
The largest fruits and vegetables, tfee heaviest fleeces, and 
the swiftest horses are exhibited, and statements of the 
greatest yields per acre are made. Frequently, also, much 
skill is shown in producing furrows of an average width and 
depth, since neither the deepest, nor the widest are always 
the best. Very often, several young ladies ride long races 
over widely extended courses, without any apparent fear of 
the many dangers, which surround them ; and, because so few 
accidents do happen, some think there is really no danger ; 
others, that the increased excitement affords an abundant 
security by causing all to use more skill and caution. 

a. As far as all includes every individual in a number or collection, it 
may be considered as showing a Definite rather than an Indefinite quan- 
tity ; but as far as it does not mean any particular number, it may be 
considered as Indefinite. 

b. Some call the following words, when used as adjectives, Peonominal Ad- 
jectives; All, any, both, either, every, few, former, first latter, last, little, least, much, 
many, neithtr, no or none, one, other ^ samn, some, such, this, that, which, what. We 
make this statement simply for the information of our readers as to what words 
the term Pronominal Adjective is usually applied. Our reasons for discarding the 
term Pronominal, are stated on page 242. 

13. Descriptive Adjectives showing Definite quan- 
tities are generally called Numeral Adjectives ; they 
are used in Counting and in Numbering. 

14. Numeral Adjectives are divided into four kinds, 
called the Cardinal, the Ordinal, the Multiplicative , 
and the Distributive. 

15. Numeral Adjectives of the Cardinal kind are 
those used in Counting ; as, one pen, two pens, three 
pens, four pens, &c. 

1©. Numeral Adjectives of the Ordinal kind are 
those $sed in Numbering ; as, the first pen, second pen, 
third pen, &c. 

1 7. Numeral Adjectives of the Multiplicative kind 



Prop. 5.] 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



237 



are those used, when objects are taken in sets, or 
groups ; as, single, double, &c. 

18. Numeral Adjectives of the Distributive kind 
are those used as Compounds of the Cardinal ; as, one 
by one, two by two ; or by twos, by threes, &c. 

Numeral Adjectives are written in words, and also in the 
Arabic and Roman Characters. In this case the words may 
be regarded as representing fixed values, the same as the 
figures, or letters. 



CARDINALS. ORDINALS. 


MULTIPLICATIVES. DISTRIB'tIV'S. 


One 1. 


I. 


First 


Single 


Once 


Single 


two 2. 


' II. 


second 


twofold 


twice 


by twos 


three 3. 


III. 


third 


threefold 


" thrice 


by threes 


four 4. 


IV. 


fourth 


fourfold 


four times 


by fours 


five 5. 


V. 


fifth 


fivefold 


five times 


by fives 


six 6. 


VI. 


sixth 


sixfold 


six times 


by sixes 


seven 7. 


VII. 


seventh 


sevenfold 


seven times 


by sevens 


eight 8. 


VIII. 


eighth 


eightfold 


eight times 


by eights 


nine 9. 


IX. 


ninth 


iminefold 


nine times 


by nines 


ten 10. 


X. 


tenth 


tenfold 


ten times 


by tens. 



The Multiple twofold is frequently used as two times, or double ; three- 
fold as triple, or three times ; fourfold, quadruple ; fivefold, quintuple ; 
sixfold, sextuple ; sevenfold, septuple ; and eightfold, octuple. 

Suggestion. The pupi^ should be exercised in the numerals until the 
distinction between the cardinal and the ordinal becomes, perfectly fa- 
miliar. For example, let them be directed to count certain objects ; then 
to number them. 

a. An and a, contractions of the Saxon word ane, one, are often used 
to restrict the meanings of nouns to one of the kind signified by the 
noun, but to no particular one, and so prevent the noun from being 
taken in a general sense ; thus, man mourns, means that all men mourn ; 
but,a man mourns, asserts that any one man mourns. They are con- 
sidered as one and the same word, and by some are called the Indefinite 
Article. (See Articles, p. 244.) 

b. A Descriptive Adjective, meaning a part of what is named by.the 
noun following it, is said to be used Partitively, or to be a Partitive ; as, 
some of our money ; that is, some money of our money ; one of the 
boys, one boy of the boys. 



238 POSITIVE DEGREE — COMPARATIVE. [Book IV. 

1®. Descriptive Adjectives^ excepting the Numerals 
and a few others, have modifications or changes of 
form called Comparison, which are used to show varia- 
tions in the signification of the Adjective. 

3©.. There are three Degrees of Comparison, called 
the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

31. The Positive Degree is used in comparing a 
thing, or class of things, with an indefinite number of - 
other things, in reference to the same property. 

3£. I have a large apple ; a very large apple. 

In this example, by large, we understand that this apple, compared 
with some other apples, is large. It may be the smallest of a number 
of apples and still be a large, or even a very large apple. The com- 
parison is between one and a number of apples not stated. 

35. An apple is large ; a pea is small. 

An apple is large fruit ; a pea is small fruit. Here apples and peas as fruit are 
compared with an indefinite number of other fruits. 

36. The dog killed a large rat and a small mouse. 

37. An elephant is very large ; a mouse is very small. 

Many suppose that the Positive is improperly called a Degree; these 
overlook the fact, that every adjective is a basis of some classification, 
and that every classification involves a comparison of two, or more. 
(See pp. 50, 68, 69, 70 and 233.) 

33. The Comparative Degree Is used when two 
things, or classes of things, are compared with refer- 
ence to the same -property. 

33. The Comparative Degree is formed from the 
Positive, when an increase is signified, by suffixing er, 
or by prefixing more ; when a decrease is signified, by 
prefixing less ; as — 

38. You have a larger apple than mine. 

39. Flowers are generally more beautiful than fruits, but 
they are less useful. 

a. The latter term of a Comparison is connected to the former term 
by the connective than. In the old English it was written then. See 
Spenser's Faery Queen. 



Prop. 5.] SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 239 

40. I would rather have five horses than four. 

• 

Old English. I would raytlier have five horses then four. 

Exceptions. — Than is not used after the comparatives, after, former, hither, lat- 
ter, hinder, upper, under, nether, inner, outer, utter, and also, anterior, exterior, in- 
ferior, interior, junior, major, minor, posterior ', prior, senior, and superior; as, Steel 
is superior to iron for cutlery 

6. When a Comparative Degree is used, the latter terra of the com- 
parison should not include the former. That is, other should be used 
as an adjunct of the latter term to exclude the former. 

41. They think gold more valuable than all the/\metals. 

They think gold more valuable than all the other metals. 

24. The Superlative Degree is used in comparing 
a thing, or class of things with a definite number of 
things, more than two, in reference to the same property. 

Observe that the difference between the Positive and the Superlative is, that 
the former, as to number, is an indefinite comparison, while the* latter is definite, 

25. The Superlative Degree is formed from the 
Positive, when an increase is signified, by suffixing est, 
or by prefixing most; when a decrease is signified, by 
prefixing least. 

a. When no definite number is stated with the superlative, all, or the 
whole of that kind must be understood. (See p. 236, a.) 

42. The largest and most delicious fruits are produced by 
the most thrifty trees. 

Analysis ; Largest is found in the Receiver, and is used as an adjunct 
of fruits, understood, showing size ; therefore, it is a Descriptive Adjec- 
tive of quantity in the Superlative Degree. It is compared ; Positive, 
large ; Comparative, larger ; Superlative, largest. Here ! 

43. Avarice begets' the meanest motives, and if indulged 
produces a most despicable character. 

44. It is our duty to avoid every pernicious indulgence, 
not only the most, but also even the least pernicious. 

b. When the Superlative Degree is used, the latter term should in- 
clude the former. 

45. This is the best of all Scott's works. 

Faulty. This is the best of all Scott's other works. 

c. The Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Monosyllables and 
also of Dissyllables ending in e silent, or in y, are usually formed by the 



240 



REGULAR, IRREGULAR COMPARISONS. [Book IV. 



suffixes er and est ; the others prefix more and most ; but this rule must 
not be regarded as conclusive ; the tendency in good usage being to 
extend the use of the suffixes, when it can be done euphoniously. Be- 
sides, some monosyllables are compared with more and most, less and 
least ; as, kind, more kind, most kind, less kind, least kind. 

d. Double Comparatives and Superlatives should be avoided. 

46. Wisdom is better than houses and lands. 

Faulty. "Wisdom is more better than houses and lands. 

47. Give your parents my most kind regards. 

Faulty. Give your parents my most kindest regards. 

The double superlative was formerly used to express sublime emo- 
tions, or intense passion. ( See Bible and English works written during 
the fourteenth and some -subsequent centuries. 

e. EXAMPLES IN REGULAR, COMPARISON. 





INCREASING. 


DECREASING. 


Positive. 


Comparative. . Superlative. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Wise 


wiser wisest 


less wise 


least wise 


Evil 


more evil most evil 


less evil 


least evil 


Simple 


simpler simplest 
more simple most simple 


less simple 


least simple 


Mighty 


mightier mightiest 
more mighty most mighty. 


less mighty 


least mighty 



f. The following Adjectives are Irregular in Comparison, 

Bad, or ill worse worst 

Good better best 

Little less least 

Much, many more most. 

g. The following Adjectives are. Redundant. (See p. 198, §62.) 

farthest farthermost, or farmost 

foremost, or first 

hindmost, or hindermost 

inmost, or innermost 

latest, or last 

lowest, or lowermost 

eldest, or oldest 

outmost, outermost utmost, uttermost 

upmost, uppermost 

northmost, northernmost 

southmost, southernmost 

eastmost, easternmost 

westmost, westernmost. 



Far 


farther 


Fpre 


former 


Hind , 


hinder 


In 


inner 


Late 


later, latter 


Low 


lower 


Old 


older 


Out 


outer, utter 


Up 


upper 


North 


northern 


South 


southern 


East 


eastern 


West 


western 



PttOP. 5.] DESIGNATING ADJECTIVES. 241 

h. Hie following Adjectives are Defective. (See p. 198, §61.) 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Wanting. After aftermost, aftmost 

Further furthermost, furthest 

" Hither hithermost 

" Nether nethermost 

" Under undermost. 

Many consider most, when suffixed to such words as the following, 
as forming their Superlative Degrees ; front, frontmost ; middle, mid- 
dlemost ; top, topmost, &c. We prefer to consider it simply as an In- 
tensive. 

i. Adjectives, which already signify fulness or completeness, do not 
admit of comparison ; as, all, round, perfect, complete, &c. When such, 
forms, as more perfect, most perfect, are used, they should be regarded as 
IniensiveSj or Emphatics. 

48. A brave bold crew and an ocean blue. 

49. Brightest and best of the sons of the morning. 

26. Designating Adjectives are those adjuncts of 
nouns, which are used to direct the attention particu- 
larly to the noun, or to point it out. (See p. 112, §21.) 

Designating Adjectives may be distinguished from Descriptives by 
observing, that a Descriptive names a property of that which the noun 
names ; while the Designating only point out, or cause us to give more 
attention to the noun itself. 

50. That gentleman told the lady to look at those trees, 
tvhich [trees] were once growing in the same spot, on which 
[spot] they were then standing. 

Analysis ; That is found in the producer, and is used as an adjunct 
to point out gentleman ; therefore, it is a Designating Adjective. In the 
same manner analyze the, those, and which. 

27. The noun, to which the Designating Adjective 
belongs, is called the Consequent of the Designator. 
If the same noun precede the adjunct, it is called the 
Antecedent of the Designator. 

Thus, in example fifty, gentleman is a Consequent of that; trees 
and spot, expressed, are Antecedents of which ; trees and spot,, under- 
stood, arc Consequents of ivhich. 

li 



242 DESIGNATTVES MODIFIED. [Book IV. 

Sometimes designators do not have antecedents ; as, that in example 
fifty ; but they must always have Consequents, either expressed or un- 
derstood. 

51. " Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor." 

The person, who — or He, who lives to nature ; &c. 

28. A few words, when used as Designating Ad- 
jectives, are modified or changed in form, to show cer- 
tain properties of the nouns to which they belong. 

a. Tliis and that, by their forms, show the number of their 
Consequents, or the nouns to which they belong. 

Singular \™ Plural { %™ 

52. Leonard owns this white house, and these red houses 
on this side of the river ; he also owns that brown-stone 
house, and those marble houses on that side. 

Analysis ; This is found in the receiver, and is used to point out house ; 
therefore, it is a Designating Adjective. By its form, we know that 
house, the noun it designates, is in the Singular Number. This and 
that by their forms; &c, see a, above. It is declined; Singular , this, 
house, Here! Plural, these houses. 

In the same manner analyze, these, that, and those. 

b. When this and that are used in relation to each other, 
or correlative!?/, this designates the nearer ; that, the more 
distant. (For example, see this side, and that side, in exam- 
ple fifty-second.) 

c. Who, and its compounds, whosoever, and whoever, and 
another, are modified to show the cases of their Consequents. 

d. Other is modified to show the number and case of its 
Consequent. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

Sin. fy PI. Who whom whose, or of whom 

Sin. §* PI. Whosoever, whoever whomsoever whosesoever, of whomso- 
ever 

Singular ; Another another another's, of another 

Singular; Other other other's, of other 

Plural ; Others others others', of others. 



Prop. 5.] DESIGNATORS ARE NOT PRONOUNS. 243 

Rule First. In English, ivhen the Designator shows the 
Case of its Consequent, the Consequent is not expressed. 

53. Wko/\ga\e you this most excellent book ? 

Who shows that the Case of the noun, understood after it, is the Nominative ; 
hence, we do not say, " Who person," &c. Some writers retain who as a pronoun, 
after discarding that classification of words usually known as Adjective Pronouns, 
not being able to dispose of who, as an adjective, because its consequent can not 
be expressed; and yet these do not consider other's, the singular, possessive, 
or others the plural of other, as pronouns, although their nouns are always under- 
stood ; and for the reason, that, by their forms, they show the cases of their nouns. 

54. To one man, he gave a reward ; to the others [men] 
he gave a reproof. 

55. I saw the man, to whom [man] you sent the message. 

It is often urged that this construction of who must be wrong, " because it 
sounds oddly." It does indeed sound oddly to hear one say, "who man," or "to 
whom man," and the reason is stated in the rule above. Notice this, the other man 
sounds very well, because we are accustomed to it ; but, the others men sounds 
strangely to our ears, which would not be the case, were we accustomed to use it, 
as is done with similar words in other languages. Be careful to what extent you 
make familiarity of sound the test of philosophical correctness. It is a proper test 
to the cultivated ear only. 

This omission of the noun is analogous to its omission after the pronouns 
mine, thine, &c, although the reasons are not the same. (See p. 228, ex. 14.) 

The modifications of these few adjectives give us some idea of those 
languages, as the Latin and Greek, and many of the modern European, 
whose adjectives by their forms always show the Gender, Number, and 
Case of their consequents. 

e. The words used as Designating Adjectives, and several Descrip- 
tives of Quantity, are by many called Adjective Pronouns ; some call De- 
scriptives of Quantity, Pronominal Adjectives. (See p. 236, b.) 

The following are offered as reasons why these should not be called 
'pronouns, or pronominals. 

First. According to definition, a pronoun, as its name implies, must stand in 
the place of a noun; Designators and Descriptives can not do this, when their 
nouns or consequents are expressed, which is very frequently the case ; as in ex- 
amples fifty and fifty-two. 

Many grammarians now admit that they can not have the effect of the pro- 
noun, when the consequent is expressed. 

Second. Some ascribe to them the office of pronouns when their consequents 
are understood. Let us examine this theory. If the noun be understood, to which 
an adjective belongs, does it follow that the adjective takes the place of its noun; 
and if so, does the preceding word take the place of the adjective? Again; if 
omitting the nouns gives their adjuncts the character of pronouns, why is not 
that character conferred on all adjectives whose nouns are understood ? If I say, 
" Here are two roads ; this is the new, and that the old," why are not new and old, 
whose nouns are. understood, as much in the place of their nouns, and hence, as 



244 DEFINITE ADJECTIVES — ARTICLES. [Book IV. 

much Adjective pronouns, as this and that ? " Consistency is a jewel" no less in 
science than elsewhere. 

Third. Are not the terms adjective and pronoun so dissimilar in meaning, as 
to forbid their union ; that is, can a word be an adjective, joined to a word, and at 
the same time be a pronoun, that is, stand in the place of that word to which it is 
so joined ? Allow, as some assert, that the expression is figurative ; is it not a 
miserable figure ? Test it by trying to imagine a picture of it. 

Fourth, These adjuncts can not take the office of the pronoun for the very 
good reason, that they have no forms by which to show the person of nouns ; now 
the ability to show person is the very essence of a pronoun or personator. Wha u 
would be thought of a sign, which could not signify ? 

Those, who choose to retain the name Adjective Pro?ioun, can do so 
by substituting it for Designating Adjective ; the subdivisions of the lat- 
ter corresponding very nearly with those of the other kind. 

29. Designating Adjectives are used in five ways ; 
Definitely, Demonstratively, Relatively, Interrogative- 
ly, and Distributively. 

These Adjectives may be described as the Definite, the Demonstra- 
tive, the Relative, the Interrogative, and the Distributive, if we con- 
sider them as divided intone kinds, instead of being used mfive ways. 

First. A Designating Adjective is used Definitely or is 
Definite, when it points out a noun, concerning which some- 
thing is already known. Its consequent is always expressed. 
The is the only English word so used ; and hence, is com- 
monly called the Definite Article. 

5Q. This is the boy, whom I sent to call the men. 

Analysis ; The is found in the first part or X; used to point out boy ; 
therefore, it is a Designating Adjective, used Definitely, or a Definite 
Adjective. Analyze the, before men, in the same manner. 

Those, who use the as a Definite Article, call an or a, an Indefinite 
Article, according to the following 

Theory of Articles. 

I. An Article is an adjunct, used to point out a noun, or to limit its 
meaning. 

II. There are two kinds of Articles ; the Definite and the Indefinite. 

III. The Definite Article is used to point out some particular object 
or class of objects. The is the only word used as a Definite Article. 

1 . This is the boy, whom I sent to call the men. 

Analysis ; The is used to point out boy ; therefore, it is a Definite Article. See 
Analysis under example fifty-six. . 



Peop. 5.] DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 245 

IV. The Indefinite Article is used to limit the noun to one of its 
kind, but to no particular one. An or a is the only Indefinite Article. 

a. An is used before a vowel, before a silent h, and before h t when 
the word is not accented on the first syllable. 

2. An artist painted a picture of an hippopotamus in an hour. 
Analysis ; An is found in the producer ; it is used to limit the meaning of artist 

to a single one ; therefore, it is an Indefinite Article. (See p. 237, a.) 

b. A is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or whose 
pronunciation commences with a consonant. 

3. At a wedding there should be a union [yunyun] of hearts. 

Thus, we see that the Definite Article the is a Designating Adjective, 
used Definitely ; and that the Indefinite Article, an or a, is a Descriptive 
Adjective showing quantity or number. They agree in this one respect 
only ; neither of them is ever used except the noun to which it belongs, 
or an adjunct of its noun, is expressed after it. 

Many use the Theory of Articles, and many do not. We insert it ; 
first, for the convenience of those who prefer to continue the use of it ; 
and second, for the information of such of our own readers, as may have 
occasion to discuss it, or to use it otherwise. 

Second. Designating Adjectives are used Demonstratively, 
when their Consequents, or the nouns which they designate, 
are expressed. 

57. The fruit of this tree is in these baskets ; the fruit of 
that tree is in those baskets. 

Analysis ; This is found in X, and is used to mark tree expressed ; therefore, it 
is a Designating Adjective used Demonstratively or it is a Demonstrative Adjective. 
(See Second.) This is also the correlative of that; thus showing that the tree, it 
designates, is the nearer of the two trees. It is declined ; singular, this, Here I 
plural, these. 

Suggestion. After the student has become familiar with the term Designating, 
it may be understood ; since, if an adjective be definite, or demonstrative, &c., it must 
designate ; thus, in the last example, this may be called a Demonstrative Adjective. 

. 58. I know which book was taken. Contracted. 

z 

Uncontr -acted. I know the book, which book was taken. X Y z + ZYx ' 

Analysis ; Which is in the receiver, and is used to point out book, expressed ; 
therefore, it is a Demonstrative Adjective. 

59. WTiat money we had was taken away. Contracted. 

That money, or all the money, which money we had, was taken away. Yx. 

Analysis; What is a contraction of that money, or all the m.oney, and which. The 
antecedent part, that m.oney, is the receiver, in which that designates money demon- 
stratively ; money is the receiver, used as the subject of an independent sentence. 



246 RELATIVE ADJECTIVES. [Book IV. 

&c. Which is found in the receiver, and is used as an adjunct of money, or as a 

Demonstrative Adjective. (See Second.) 

60. We do not know what course we ought to take. Con* 

We do not know that course, which course we ought to take. 

a. What, when used demonstratively, must be considered a contraction of an 
antecedent, and its adjunct, and the designator of the consequent. Its antecedent 
may be determined from its consequent. (See examples fifty-nine and sixty.) 

61. Kichard shall have that time, which time he needs. 

Kichard shall have that time, which he needs. (See p. 121, §6, ex. 31.) 



Richard shall have what time he needs. X T-= 



Z + XYZ 

62. I know what messenger went, but I do not know which 
way he went. 

63. Amuse yourselves in whatever way best suits you. 

64. These are the same gifts ; the very, self-same gifts. 

65. Othello. " I will a round unvarnished tale deliver 

Of my whole course of love ; what drugs, what charms, 
What conjuration, and what mighty magic, 
I won his daughter with*" 

That is; naming those drugs, with which drugs; those charms, with which 
charms ; that conjuration, with which conjuration, &c. 

b. Them should never be used as a designator. 

66. The traveller has ail of those things. 

Vulgar. The traveller has all of them things. 

Third. Designating Adjectives are used Relatively, when 
their consequents are not expressed. (See p. 119.) 

They are said to be used Relatively, because, when the consequent is 
not expressed, we are obliged to go back [refer or relate] to the antece- 
dent to find, or determine the consequent. Viewed in this light, all 
words used as adjectives, except the, an, a, and every, may be used re- 
latively. (Book III., Prop, xi.) 

67. This is the day, which [day] was appointed for the 
trial. 

Analysis ; Which is a part of Z, and is used as an adjunct of day, understood ; 
therefore, it is a Designating Adjective, used Relatively, or a Relative Adjective. 
(See TJdrd.) 

a. When what is used Relatively, both its antecedent and its conse- 
quent must be determined. (See Second, a.) 

68. Henry shall have what he needs. X Y „ ^^^ 

Z-f-JL X Zt 
Henry shall have those things, which things he needs. 



Pjrop. 5.] USES OF RELATIVE ADJECTIVES. 247 

69. I saw the man, who brought the baggage. That is, 
who man, &c. # 

b. Who, as we have shown on page 242, always shows the case of 
its consequent by its form; and hence, its consequent is never ex- 
pressed ; and hence also, ivho can never be used definitely, or demonstra- 
tively. 

Analysis ; Wlio is found in the first part as an adjunct of man, understood, to 
which it calls the attention; therefore, it is a Designating Adjective, used Rela- 
tively, or it is a Relative Adjective. Its form shows that its consequent is in the 
Nominative Case. (See p. 242, c.) 

It is declined ; Singular, Norn., who, Here ! Obj., whom ; Poss., whose, or of 
whom ; Plural, Norn., who ; Obj., whom ; Poss., whose, or of whom. 

Rule Second. A Designating Adjective, used Relatively y 
should be placed as near its Antecedent as possible. 

70. Then one Hugo, who was only a serf, began to say 
unto his master. 

Faulty. Then one Hugo began to say unto his master, who was only a serf. 

c. Sometimes for emphasis, or for convenience, the Relative may 
precede its noun. (Seep. 128, ex. 20.) 

71. To whom, and for what, I divulge the following narra- 
tive, will appear in the sequel. 

Several authors, who agree with us in denying the pronoun office of these Des- 
ignators, have been so much at a loss to dispose of who as to retain it among the 
pronouns, even after rejecting all the others. Hence also, has arisen another er- 
ror,Mn which other's and its plurals, and also another's, are called nouns. These, 
when used as Designators, show the cases of their consequents by their forms ; 
and hence, their consequents are never expressed. 

72. Mr. Brown owns the house, that/\yo\x saw. 

d. It is usually taught in our English grammars, that who, when 
used Relatively, relates to persons only ; which to animals and to things ; 
and that, to persons, animals, or things. In the earlier history of the 
language, no such distinctions were made ; and this fact should be 
borne in mind when reading the earlier writings ; and also, that these 
distinctions even now are only partially observed ; whose being used rel- 
atively with all genders ; and which often designating persons. 

73. There are emotions, whose /\ thrill no language por- 
trays. (See b.) 

74. Tell me, ivhich man saw, and which person heard him. 

Fourth. Designating Adjectives are used Interrogatively, 
when they are used in asking questions. 



248 INTERR0GAT3VES — DISTRIBUTIVES. [Book IV. 

In using questions, the Consequent is presented before that, which would 
Otherwise be called the antecedent, but which in this instance is called the Subse- 
quent ; that is, by common consent, we imderstand, that when the Consequent ia 
stated first, the Subsequent [antecedent] is desired. 

75. Which horse may I ride ? Arts. Swiftfoot. 

Which horse may I ride ? Swiftfoot is the horse, which horse you may ride. 

Analysis ; Which is found in the receiver ; used in a question to point out horse, 
expressed ; therefore, it is a Designating Adjective used Interrogatively, or it is an 
Interrogative Adjective. 

a. Designating Adjectives may be demonstrative, or relative, and yet 
be interrogative at the same time ; thus, in the last example, which is a 
Designating Adjective, used interrogatively and demonstratively, or it is 
an Interrogative demonstrative adjective. 

76. " Who is my neighbor ?" (See Third, h.) 

77. What villains now disturb our rest ? Ans. Rowdies. 

Answer. Rowdies are the villains, which villains now disturb your rest. 

Analysis; What is in X; and is used to mark villains, expressed; therefore, it 
Is a Designating Adjective, used Interrogatively, or an Interrogative, demonstra- 
tive adjective. 

78. What object is that ? Am. A man [is that object]. 

79. To which lady did you give the book, and to which of 
the children shall I give this fruit ? 

Fifth. A Designating Adjective is used Distributive!^ 
when it signifies that the class, or collection, to which it points, 
is to be taken singly, or individually. 

80. Equal rations were given to each soldier. 

Analysis ; Each is found in Y; and is used to show that every individual in 
that collection of soldiers is signified ; therefore, it is a Designating Adjective, 
■Qsed Distributively, or a Distributive Adjective ; it is also demonstrative. (Ex. 75. a.) 

81. He called his servants and gave to each/\h\& charge. 

82. Every pupil in the room knew the lesson perfectly. 
Every can not be used relatively, unless followed by another adjunct. 

83. He gives to every one [person] liberally. 

84. In the married state, the same rights naturally belong 
to either [or eacK] party ; neither party having the right to 
govern the other y\ ; nor is either /\ bound to obey the other ^ 
implicitly. 

a. Either and neither designate one of two objects ; as — 

85. Either of the two boys will answer my purpose. 

Faulty. May either of the four boys go? Say, .may any, &c 



Prop. 5.] PLACES OF ADJECTIVES. 249 

b. Other is often used in opposition to one; as — 

86. Here are two books; one is mine, the other is yours. 

c. The individual thing, designated by a Distributive followed by 
one, is always regarded as in the third person, and the singular number. 

87. Every one of us is an individual. 

88. Each of you is implicated in this transaction. 

89. Each feeling, each thought, and each act of life makes 
its impress on the character. 

90. Every season has its own pleasures, differing in kind 
from the others ; but the same in its purpose. 

d. Many followed by an, or a, has a Distributive Signification. 

91. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, and waste 
its sweetness on the desert air. 

30. Adjectives usually precede their nouns ; but 
there are several instances, in which the noun may 
precede the adjective. 

a. When that, which the noun names, is compared with things of a 
different kind or class. 

92. This apple is sweet, mellow, and juicy. 

The adjectives, being placed after the affirmer, imply that the apple is com- 
pared with an indefinite number of things ; but if we place the adjective before 
the noun, sweet apple, we understand that the comparison is between this and other 
apples; things of the same Rind. The same is true in the Comparative and 
Superlative Degrees. (See p. 238, §21.) 

6. When the adjective would interfere with the directness, or distinct- 
ness of the expression. # 

93. Henry is a true gentleman, quiet in his deportment, 
pleasant in his address, and social in his habits. 

94. " The wall is three feet high." 

Few sentences have been discussed [" parsed"] as much as this has been. 
Some construe it ; " The wall is three feet in height ;" others, " The wall is a three, 
feet high wall. ' In the former, three feet is a compound adjunct of wall ; in the 
latter, three feet high is so regarded. That is, as compounds without a hyphen. 
(See p. 234, ex. 10.) 

c. When we would make the adjective more prominent, or emphatic. 

95. God is a spirit, infinite, eternal, unchangeable, &c. 

d. When the affirmer helps to show the relation of the adjective to 
its noun. 

96. The bolts, having become loose, were made tighter. 

11* 



250 ADJECTIVES SHOWING NUMBER. [Book IV. 

97. The sky looks cold and dreary, while the blast is strong 
and bitter. 

e. In many instances, the adjective may precede, or follow the noun 
at the pleasure of the writer, or speaker. 

98. This is a large, commodious, and elegant building. 

This building is large, commodious, and elegant. 

Rule Third. An Adjective, having modifications to show 
number, must take that modification, which shows the number 
of the noun, to which it belongs. 

99. Let the children have these things, and give this cent 
to the beggar. 

Faulty. Let the children have this things, and give these cent to the beggar. 

a. If the adjectives signify number, either definitely, or indefinitely, 
they must agree with their nouns. (See p. 210, §21.) 

100. I saw several deer, an elk, two bears, and thousands 
of wild ducks ; but did not shoot any of them. (p. 227, b.) 

Some violations of this principle have the sanction of " Good Usage," and 
hence, may be used, if the taste of the narrator permit it ; as, " Fifty head of 
cattle ;" "A fleet of thirty sail ;" others are in frequent use, which the scholar al- 
ways avoids; as, " Twenty pound," for twenty pounds. 

b. When the noun has no modification to show number, its number 
may sometimes be known by its adjective. jSee p. 214, §13.) 

101. Whether a man has but one sheep, or a dozen sheep ; 
one yoke, or ten yoke of cattle; he is alike entitled to his 
possessions. 

102. Lend me a pair of scissors ; I have four pair and 
can not find one. 

103. Which do you prefer four brace of woodcocks, or two 
brace of pheasants ? 

104. The age of man is three score years and ten; but if, 
by reason of great strength, they be four score ; yet is their 
end bitterness. 

c. Sometimes the parts of a Compound Numeral seem, at first sight, 
to be contradictory ; as, one hundred men ; but we must remember, that 
the system of numerical notation is founded on an idea of classes or 
groups, in which objects are considered singly, or by tens, or by hundreds. 



Prop. 5] ADJECTIVES PARSED AS NOUNS. 251 

&c, and that each class may be taken singly, or by twos, &c. The same 
is true in such expressions ; as, one half, one quarter, &c. 

105. One dollar is only a one hundredth part of one hun- 
dred dollars ; and it requires one hundred cents to make one 
dollar. 

106. Newton's mind was full of lofty thoughts. X Y. 

Examples like the last have caused grammarians much trouble, beside giving 
rise to several rules of Syntax, which might have been omitted by considering of 
lofty thoughts the Second Object of was, to which no one would object, if with be 
substituted for of, and full changed to filled; as — 

Newton's mind was filled with lofty thoughts. Z Yx. 

Translation — Z, Newton's mind ; Y, was filled with lofty thoughts ; x, not ex- 
pressed. 

107. A pure mind is conscious of rectitude. XT. 

Translation — X, A pure mind conscious; Y, is of rectitude. 

108. I am weary of my life. 

"Adjectives parsed as Nouns" The grammarians tell us *, "When the noun 
is understood, the Adjective may be parsed as a noun ;" but no one of them has 
told us upon what principle this may be done; nor what is gained by doing it; 
hence, we can not refrain from asking, " Why, if the Adjective be so parsed, may 
not the Yerb, or the Preposition, or the Adverb, be parsed in the same way ?" 

We, of course, object to this mode of parsing the Adjective. First, because 
we see no utility in it ; Second, because it confounds the Adjective with the Noun 
and the Pronoun ; and Third, because it draws the student's attention from the Con- 
traction, which the omission of the noun occasioned, and which the student must 
be able to supply before he can understand the meaning, or thought, contained in 
that part of the sentence, which is expressed. In teaching language, too little at- 
tention has been given to the Contractions, and yet the principles involved in 
them constitute, an essential portion of the Science of Language. We might say, 
that the greater portion of the study required to become a proficient in any lan- 
guage must be spent in learning what the different contracted forms mean, and 
how to make contractions, which are neither obscure, nor ambiguous. Hence, 
when an Adjective belongs to a noun understood, we require the student to sup- 
ply the ellipsis, and having supplied it, to analyze the Adjective precisely as if its 
noun were expressed. 

109. There are good men, and evil men in this world ; the 
good/\ shall prosper, but the evil/\ shall fail. 

110. There the wicked cease from troubling, and the weary 
are at rest. 

The Formula for the Analysis of Adjectives is intended 
to give the pupil a brief view of the different points to be 
considered in analyzing Adjectives, and to give facility in 
analyzing. (See p. 220.) 



252 



FORMULA FOR ADJECTIVES. 



[Book IV. 



31. General Formula for Analyzing Adjectives. 
Logically 

J-k | a part of | 

Ehetorically 



' First Part, or X. 
Second Part, or Y. 
' Third Part, or Z. 



Used as an Adjunct of- 



* to show its - 



k understood, 



quantity, 
quality, 
duration, 
position, 
extension, 
form, &e. 
to point out, or to call 
attention to it. 



Therefore, Grammatically, — [it] & an Adjective. 



It is a. 



Simple 
Compound 
Primitive 
Derivative 



Generic Adjective. 
Gentile Adjective. 
Proper • • - Patrial Adjective. 

Patronymic Adjective. 
Titular Adjective. 

Common \ %r i £" f, dje f re of / f 

( Designating Adjective used T 



*of 



^Mfnitief dlS \ 



not a Numeral, 
a Numeral of the . 



f Cardinal kind. 
J Ordinal kind. 
* * Multiplicative kind. 

quality V Not Compared, In-com'-pa-ra-ble. t Distributive kind. 

position ....... ( Positive Degree. 

duration I in the •< Comparative Degree. 

k form, &c J ( Superlative Degree. 



{Definitely. ") 

Demonstratively, j 
Relatively, j J- It has 

Interrogatively. J 
Distributively. J Declension 



Modifications to show •! 5™ ber {• of its noun. 
no Changes of form. < oase ' 



HERE! 



Why, and the rule, if there be one. 



INCREASING. DECREASING. 



It is Compared, Pos. , Comp. , Sup. • 



Here ! 



The reference [*] on the right-hand side of the page is to the star on the left- 
hand side. That is, consider the second of as a repetition of the first and read 
what follows it as a continuation of the same. So the dagger [t] on the right refers 
to the dagger on the left. 



Suggestion, The suggestions, relating to the use of the Formula for Noun9, 
page 221, may be observed in using the Formula for Adjectives. It should be re- 
membered that the Formulas are to be regarded as abstracts of previous propo- 
sitions. 



Prop. 6.] VERBS — TRANSITIVES — VOICE. 253 



PROPOSITION SIXTH. 

1 . A Verb is that part of the Act, or State of ex- 
istence, which is used as the Affirmer of the subject. 

For examples, see Affirmers, in the Khetorical Analysis, page 108. 

2. Verbs, according to their Use, are divided into 
two Kinds ; the Transitive and the Intransitive. (See 
p. 107, §6.) 

3. The Transitive Verb is one, which has, or may 
have a Receiver, or third part. A sentence, having a 
Transitive verb, will always be in the formula, XYZ, 
or in ZYX. 

1. We heard the music. XT Z. 

2. The music was heard, by us. Z YX. 

Analysis ; Heard is a part of the act, and has a receiver. It is used as the af- 
firmer of the noun, personified by We ; therefore, it is a Transitive Verb. In the 
same manner, analyze was heard, as the affirmer of music. 

3. John can read and write. X Yz + x Yz. 

Analysis ; Can read is the act, and may have a receiver ; or, its receiver is un- 
derstood. It is used as the affirmer of John ; therefore, it is a Transitive Verb. 
In the same manner, analyze write [can write]. 

4. Transitive Verbs are used in two Forms, or Modi- 
fications, which are called their Active and Passive 
Voices. 

5. The Active Voice is that Form, or Modification 
of the verb, which is used when the producer, or first 
part is the subject. A sentence, whose verb is in the 
Active Voice, is in the formula, XYZ. (p. 105, §2.) 

4. The showers refresh the drooping plants. XYZ. 

Analysis ; Refresh is the second part, and has a receiver. It is used as the af- 
firmer of the producer, showers; therefore, it i3 a Transitive Verb, in the Active 
Voice ; because its Producer is its subject. 

6. The Passive Voice is that Form, or Modification 
of the verb, which is used when the receiver, or third 



254 XNTRANSITIVES. [Book IV. 

part is the subject. A sentence, whose verb is in the 
Passive Voice, is always in the third formula, Z YX 
(See p. 105, §2.) 

5. The drooping plants are refreshed by the showers. ZYX. 

Analysis ; Are refreshed is in the act, and has a receiver. It is used as the of- 
firmer of the receiver, plants ; therefore, it is a Transitive Verb, in the Passive 
Voice, because its receiver is its subject 

Rule First. When the Producer is the subject, the verb 
must be in the Active Voice ; when the Receiver is the subject, 
the verb must be in the Passive Voice. 

7. An Intransitive Verb is one, which neither has, 
nor may have a Receiver, or third part ; hence, can 
not have the Passive Form, or Modification. Sentences, 
having Intransitive verbs, are always in the first for- 
mula, X Y. 

8. Intransitive Verbs have the same forms as the 
Active Voices of Transitive Verbs. 

6. The messenger came in the cars, and went away in the 
boat. XY+xY. 

Analysis ; Came is the second part, or act. It can not have a receiver ; and is 
used as the affirmer of messenger ; therefore, it is an Intransitive Verb. So also 
of went. 

7. The king sat on his throne, and his sceptre was in his 
hand. XY+XY 

8. I came, I saw, I conquered. X Y+ X Yz + X Yz. 

a. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are usually distinguished by- 
using after them, any noun, as a First Object. The word thing is gen- 
erally used. Those verbs, admitting a First Object, being Transitive ; 
those, not admitting a First Object, being Intransitive. A better mode 
is by the use of the Formulas. 

9. We heard music. X Y Z. We heard something. 
XY Z. Transitive. 

10. John can read. X Yz. John can read words. Tran. 

11. The messenger comes. XY. — — comes a thing. 
Intransitive. 

12. John went. X Y. went a thing. Intransitive. 



Prop. 6.] ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS. 255 

b. Since the same verb may be used in a variety of significations, it 
follows, that a Verb may be Transitive in some of its meanings, and In- 
transitive in others. 

13. To run, meaning to move one's self swiftly, is Intran- 
sitive. The boy runs. X Y. 

To run, to drive swiftly, is Transitive. The driver ran his 
horses. X Y Z. 

To run, to pour, or to cast, is Transitive. They ran the 
metal into the mould. 

14. To fly, to move on wings, Intr. The bird flies. XT. 
To fly, to cause to sail, Transitive. The boy flies the 

kite. XYZ. 

To fly, to flee, Intransitive. The enemy fly. X Y. 

c. The distinction between Transitive and Intransitive Verbs is 
founded mainly on the significations of the Verbs themselves ; as — 

15; We are. You sit. They be. Men faint. X Y. 

d. In some instances, this distinction is the result of usage ; a Verb, 
which is considered intransitive in one period of the history of a lan- 
guage, being considered transitive in another ; as — 

16. They grow good wheat in England. XY Z. 

17. Not much wheat is grown 'in New England. Z YX. 

The Yerb to grow, having been heretofore generally considered intransitive, 
has now come to be used transitively in writing, and in discourses pertaining to 
agriculture. There is nothing in its meaning to forbid such use. 

e. The same Verb-roots are used transitively in one language, and 
intransitively in another; as the root mand, used in command, remand. 

18. In English, the General commands the soldiers. XYZ. 
In Latin, to command is used intransitively, The general commands to 

the soldiers (militibus). X Y. 

9. Beside Voice, Verbs have four Attributes, or 
Accidents, called Tense, Person, Number, and Mood, 
which are derived from the Logical and Rhetorical 
Properties, and Uses of the part named, or represented 
by the verb. 

1®. Tense is the relation between the time of the 
narration, and the time of tEe action. It is shown by 
various modifications of the verb. 



256 THE TENSES. [Book IV. 

Tense is from a Latin word signifying to stretch, to point ; here it is used in the 
latter sense ; meaning to show the relation. Many give it the meaning of time, or 
duration, which is evidently wrong. If tense meant time, then there could be only 
three tenses ; but since it means the relation between two points of time, it is evi- 
dent we may describe this relation in several ways, and hence, may have a greater 
number of tenses, than of the divisions of time. 

Time refers to the event, itself; tense, to the narrative, or history of the event. 
Hence, while the event and its time are always present to each other, or exist to- 
gether, the time of the narration, and the the time of the event may differ. That is, 
the narration may be made at the time of the event, after the time of the event, 
or before the time of the event. 

11. In the English Verb, six Tenses are used ; 
namely — 

The Present, 

The Imperfect, or Past Indefinite, 

The Perfect, or First Definite Past, 

The Pluperfect, or Second Definite Past, 

The First Future, or Future Indefinite, 

The Second Future, or Future Definite. 

At present, the former names are the more used ; the latter, are the 
more philosophical. 

12. The Present Tense shows that the narrator 
either does make, or is supposed to make the narration 
at the time the event is occurring, or exists. 

19. The cedars wave o'er Lebanon. X Yz. 

Analysis ; Wave is the act, and may have a receiver. It is used as the affirmer 
of cedars (X) ; therefore, it is a Verb. It is Transitive, and in the Active Voice, 
Present Tense, because the narration is made at the time of the event 

20. "As he lay in state, he sees let down from the ceiling 
a sword, suspended by a single hair." 

Analysis ; Sees is the act, and has a receiver. It is nsed as the affirmer of 
the First Part, or X, which is personated by he ; therefore, it is a Verb. It is 
Transitive, and in the Active Voice, Present Tense, because the narration is sup- 
posed to be made at the time of the event. 

a. Present Time is now. It is the position, from which all time is 
divided into the Past, and the Future; but the Present Tense is the 
time, when the narrator is making, or is supposed to make the narra- 
tion. It is the position, from which the Tenses are divided into the 
Present, the Past, and the Future Tenses. Hence, Present Tense is 
sometimes the Present Time, and sometimes it is not. 



Prop. 6.] THE TENSES. 257 

13. The Imperfect) or Past Indefinite Tense shows 
that the event occurred at some indefinite time before 
the time of the narration ; or, that the narration is 
made at some indefinite time after the event occurred. 

a. The Imperfect is the English Historic Tense. In the Latin, the 
Perfect is the Historic Tense. 

21. John wrote a letter, and sealed it. XYZ+x Y Z. 

Analysis ; Wrote is the act, &c. It is the Imperfect, or Past Indefinite Tense, be- 
cause the narrator is describing an event, which took place at an indefinite time 
before the narration. Analyze sealed in the same manner. 

14. The Perfect^ or First Definite Past Tense shows 
that the time of the event was completed just at the 
time of beginning to make the narration ; or, that the 
narration is made at the completion of the event. 

22. James has come. X Y. I have been weary. 

Analysis ; Has come is the act, &c. It is in the Perfect, or First Definite Past 
Tense, because it shows that the act was completed just at the beginning of the 
time of the narration ; or, of the Present Tense. 

15. The Pluperfect^ or Second Definite Past Tense 
shows that the event was completed at, or before some 
other Indefinite Past time. 

23. I had known them, when I was a boy. XYZ+XYX. 

Analysis ; Had known is the act, &c. It is in the Pluperfect, or Second Definite 
Past Tense, because it shows that the time of the event was complete before an- 
other Indefinite Past time. 

10. The First Future, or Future Indefinite Tense 
shows that the event will be after the time of the nar- 
ration ; or, that the narration is made an indefinite 
time before the event occurs. 

24. Henry will sing for us. 

Analysis ; Will sing is the act, &c. It is in the First Future, or Future Indeji* 
nite Tense, because it shows that the time of the event is some indefinite time after 
the narration. 

17. The Second Future) or Future Definite Tense 
shows that the event will be completed at, or before 
some indefinite future time. 



258 PRIMARY TENSES. [Book IV. 

25. John will have left before Henry will sing. 

Analysis ; Wid have left is in the Second Future, or Future Definite Tense, be- 
cause it shows that the time of the event will be before some indefinite time 
after the narration. 

1 8 . The Tenses are divided into the Primary, or 
Given Tenses; and the Secondary, or Derivative 
Tenses. 

19. The Primary, or Given Tenses are those, from 
which the other tenses are formed. They are usually 
given in the dictionaries, and are called the Leading, 
or Principal Parts of the Verb. 

2®. The Principal Parts of the English Verb are; 
First, the Present Infinitive ; Second, the Imperfect, 
or Past Indefinite, Indicative ; Third, the Present, 
and Fourth, the Perfect of the Participial Mood. 

81. When the Second and Fourth Principal Parts 
are formed by adding ed to the root, the Verb is said 
to be Regular. 

If the verb ends in e, the vowel of the root, and the suffix are contracted ; as, 
love, loved. 

Primary Tenses, or Principal Parts 
of Regular Verbs. 

First Prin. Part Second Prin. Part. Third Prin. Part. Fourth Prin. Part. 

Present Infinitive. Imperfect Indie. Pres. Participle. Per/. Participle. 



1. 


To love 


I loved 


— loving 


— loved. 


2. 


To hate 


I hatec? 


— hating 


— hated. 


3. 


To study 


I studied 


— studying 


— studied. 


4. 


To play 


I played 


— playing 


— played. 


5. 


To sail 


I sailed 


— sailing 


— sailed. 


6. 


To walk 


I walked 


— walking 


— walked. 


7. 


To dance 


I danced 


— dancing 


— danced. 


8. 


To mourn 


I mourned 


— mourning 


— mourned. 


9. 


To pay 


I paid * 


— paying 


— paid.* 


10; 


To say 


I said * 


— saying 


— said.* 


11. 


To provide 


I provided 


— providing 


— provided. 



* The old forms were payed, sayed ; these have been contracted into paid, said ; 
hence, they may be considered Regular verbs. 



Prop. 6.} 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



259 



S3. When the Second and Fourth Principal Parts 
do not end in ed, the Verb is said to be Irregular. 

The Sign of the Infinitive Mood is understood before each Verb-Root in the 
left-hand column; and some subject before each in the Imperfect Indicative; the 
same as in the examples of Regular Verbs. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



First Prin. Pari 


;. Second Prin. Part 


;. Third Prin- Part 


. Fourth Prin. Part 


Pres. Infinitive 


, Imp. Indicative, 


Pres. Part. 


Per/. Part. 


To abide 


I abode 


abiding 


abode. 


Arise 


arose 


arising 


arisen. 


Be 


was 


being 


been. 


Bear 


bore, or bare 


bearing 


borne, or born. 


Beat 


beat 


beating 


beaten, or beat. 


Begin 


began 


beginning 


begun. 


Bend 


bent, or bended 


bending 


bent, or bended. 


Bereave 


bereaved, bereft 


bereaving 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech 


besought 


beseeching 


besought. 


Bid 


bid, or bade 


bidding 


bidden, or bid. 


Bind 


bound 


binding 


bound. 


Bite » 


bit 


biting 


bitten, or bit. 


Bleed 


bled 


bleeding 


bled. 


Blow 


blew 


blowing 


blown. 


Break 


broke 


breaking 


broken. 


Breed 


bred 


breeding 


bred. 


Bring 


brought 


bringing 


brought. 


Build 


built, or builded 


building 


built, or builded. 


Burst 


burst 


bursting 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


buying 


bought. 


Cast 


cast 


casting 


cast. 


Catch 


caught, catched 


catching 


caught, catched. 


Chide 


chid 


chiding 


chidden, or chid. 


Choose 


chose 


choosing 


chosen. 


Cleave 


cleft, or clove 


cleaving 


cleft, or cloven. 


Cling 


clung 


clinging 


clung. 


Clothe 


clothed, or clad 


clothing 


clothed, or clad. 


Come 


came 


coming 


come. 


Cost 


cost 


costing 


cost. 


Crow 


crowed, or crew 


crowing 


crowed. 


Creep 


crept 


creeping 


crept. 


Cut 


cut 


cutting 


cut. 


Dare 


dared, or durst 


daring 


dared. 


Deal 


dealt, or dealed 


dealing 


dealt, or dealed. 


Dig 


digged, or dug 


digging 


digged, or dug. 


Do 


did 


doing 


done. 


Draw- 


drew 


drawing 


drawn. 


Dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreaming 


dreamed, dreamt. 


Drive 


drove 


driving 


driven. 


Drink 


drank 


drinking 


drunk. 


Dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelling 


dwelt, dwelled. 


Eat 


ate, or eat 


eating 


eaten. 



260 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



[Book IV. 



Pres. Infinitive 


. Imp. Indicative, 


Pres. Part. 


Per/. Part. 


To fall 


/fell 




falling 


fallen. 


Feed 


fed 




feeding 


fed. 


Feel 


felt 




feeling 


felt. 


Fight 


fought 




fighting 


fought. 


Find 


found 




finding 


found. 


Flee 


fled 




fleeing 


fled. 


Fling 


flung 




flinging 


flung. 


Fly 


flew 




flying 


flown. 


Forsake 


forsook 




forsaking 


forsaken. 


Freeze 


froze 




freezing 


frozen. 


Get 


got 




getting 


got, or gotten. 


Gild . 


gilded, or gilt 


gilding 


gilded, or gilt. 


Gird 


girded, < 


or girt 


girding 


girded, or girt. 


Give 


gave 




giving 


given. 


Go 


went 




going 


gone. 


Grave 


graved 




graving 


graved, or graven. 


Grind 


ground 




grinding 


ground. 


Grow 


grew 




growing 


grown. 


Hang 


hanged, 


or hung 


hanging 


hanged, or hung. 


Have 


had 




having 


had. 


Hear 


heard 




hearing 


heard. 


Heave 


heaved, 


or hove 


heaving 


heaved, or hpven. 


Hew 


hewed 




hewing 


hewed, or hewn. 


Hide 


hid 




hiding 


hidden, or hid. 


Hit 


hit 




hitting 


hit. 


Hold 


held 




holding 


held. 


Hurt 


hurt 




hurting 


hurt. 


Keep 


kept 




keeping 


kept. 


Kneel 


kneeled 


, or knelt 


kneeling 


kneeled, or knelt. 


Knit 


knit, or 


knitted 


knitting 


knit, or knitted. 


Know 


knew 




knowing 


known. 


Lade 


laded 




lading 


laden, or laded. 


Lay 


laid 




laying 


laid. 


Lean 


leaned, 


or leant 


leaning 


leaned, or leant. 


Lead 


led 




leading 


led. 


Leave 


left 




leaving 


left. 


Lend 


lent 




lending 


lent. 


Let 


let 




letting 


let. 


Lie 


lay 




lying 


lain. 


Light 


lighted, 


or lit 


lighting 


lighted, or lit. 


Lose 


lost 




losing 


lost. 


Make 


made 




making 


made. 


Mean 


meant 




meaning 


meant. 


Meet 


met 




meeting 


met. 


Mow 


mowed 




mowing 


mowed, or mown. 


Pay 


paid 




paying 


paid. See p. 258. 


Put 


put 




putting 


put. 


Quit 


quitted, 


or quit 


quitting 


quitted, or quit. 


Read 


read 




reading 


read. 


Reave 


reft, or ] 


:eaved 


reaving 


reft, or reaved. 


Rend 


rent 




rending 


rent. 


Rid 


rid 




ridding 


rid. 



Prop. 6.] 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



261 



Pres. Infinitive 


. Imp. 2 


ndicative 


. Pres. Part. 


Per/. Part. 


To ride 


I rode 




riding 


ridden, or rode. 


ling 


rung, or 


rang 


ringing 


rung. 


lise 


rose 




rising 


risen. 


live 


rived 




riving 


riven, or rived. 


lun 


ran 




running 


run. 


Jaw 


sawed 




sawing 


sawed, or sawn. 


>ay 


said 




saying 


said. 


>ee 


saw 




seeing 


seen. 


>eek 


sought 




seeking 


sought. 


Seethe 


seethed, 


or sod 


seething 


seethed, sodden. 


>ell 


sold 




selling 


sold. 


>end 


sent 




sending 


sent. 


Jet 


set 




setting 


set. 


>hake 


shook 




shaking 


shaken. 


>have 


shaved 




shaving 


shaved, or shaven. 


>hear 


sheared 




shearing 


sheared, or shorn. 


ihed 


shed 




shedding 


shed. 


>hine 


shone, or shined 


shining 


shone. 


>hoe 


shod 




shoeing 


shod. 


>how 


showed 




showing 


showed, or shown. 


Shoot 


shot 




shooting 


shot. 


>hut 


shut 




shutting 


shut. 


Shred 


shred 




shredding 


shred. 


Shrink 


shrunk, 


or shrank shrinking 


shrunk. 


Sing 


sung, or 


sang 


singing 


sung. 


link 


sunk, or 


• sank 


sinking 


sunk. 


lit 


sat 




sitting 


sat. 


>lay 


slew 




slaying 


slain. 


Sleep 


slept 




sleeping 


slept. 


Slide 


slid 




sliding 


slidden, or slid. 


Sling 


slung 




slinging 


slung. 


Slink 


slunk 




slinking 


slunk. 


Slit 


slit, or slitted 


slitting 


slit, or slitted. 


[mite 


smote 




smiting 


smitten, or smit. 


low 


sowed 




sowing 


sowed, or sown. 


Speak 


spoke 




speaking 


spoken. 


Speed 


sped 




speeding 


sped. 


Spend 


spent 




spending 


spent. 


►pill 


spilt 




spilling 


spilt. 


Spin 


spun 




spinning 


spun. 


>pit 


spit, or spat 


spitting 


spit. 


Split 


split 




splitting 


split. 


Spread 


spread 




spreading 


spread. 


Spring 


sprung, 


sprang 


springing 


sprung. 


Stand 


stood 




standing 


stood. 


Steal 


stole 




stealing 


stolen. 


Stick 


stuck 




sticking 


stuck. 


Sting 


stung 




stinging 


stung. 


Stride 


strode, or strid 


striding 


stridden. 


Strike 


struck 




striking 


struck. 


String 


strung 




stringing 


strung. 


Strive 


strove 




striving 


striven. 



262 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



[Book IV. 



Pres. Infinitive. Imp. Indicative. Pres. Part. Per/. Part. 



To strow 


I strowed 


s trowing 


strowed, strown. 


Swear 


swore 


swearing 


sworn. 


Sweat 


sweated, sweat 


sweating 


sweated, or sweat, 


Sweep 


swept 


sweeping 


swept. 


Swell 


swelled 


swelling 


swelled, swollen. 


Swim 


swum, or swam 


swimming 


swum. 


Swing 


swung 


swinging 


swung. 


Take 


took 


taking 


taken. 


Teach 


taught 


teaching 


taught. 


Tear 


tore 


tearing 


torn. 


Tell 


told 


telling 


told. 


Think 


thought 


thinking 


thought. 


Thrive 


thrived, throve 


thriving 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw 


threw, throwed 


throwing 


thrown. 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrusting 


thrust. 


Tread 


trod 


treading 


trodden, or trod. 


Wake 


waked, or woke 


waking 


waked. 


Wax 


waxed 


waxing 


waxen. 


Wear 


wore 


wearing 


worn. 


Weave 


weaved, or wove 


weaving 


weaved, or woven, 


Weep 


wept 


weeping 


wept. 


Win 


won 


winning 


won. 


Wind 


wound 


winding 


wound. 


Wont 


wonted, or wont 


wonting 


wonted, or wont. 


Work 


worked, wrought 


working 


worked, wrought, 


Wring 


wrung 


wringing 


wrung. 


Write 


wrote 


writing 


written. 



The general tendency is to reduce the Irregular Yerbs to the Regular, so that 
the list has been made less. In the above list, the Regular before the Irregular 
form implies that the former is more used than the latter, and vice versa. 

a. Beware, can, may, must, ought, shall, and quoth, are 
Defective Verbs. None of them being used in the Participial 
Mood. (See p. 198, § 61.) 

QS. When a verb is used to modify another verb, 
it is called an Auxiliary, or Helping' Yerb. The verbs, 
so used, are, Do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must, 
and their variations. 

The Uses, and Modifications of the Auxiliaries will be shown, as they are 
needed for use in the Conjugation of the Verbs. 

a. Shall, may, can, and must, are never used, except as 
Auxiliaries ; Do, be, and have, are sometimes used as Aux- 
iliaries and sometimes as Principal Verbs. 



>• Simple Forms. Present Tense. 



Prop. 6.] SECONDARY — PERSON — NUMBER. 263 

24. The First Principal Part, or the Present Infin- 
itive, is always the General Name of the Affirmer ; 
thus, we say the Verbs, To love, To hate, &c. When 
so used, the prefix, To, is called the sign of the Infini- 
tive, and the other part, the Verb-Root; as, love, hate. 

25. The Secondary, or Derived Tenses, are those, 
formed from the Primary according to certain rules. 

26. The Tenses are expressed in different ways, 
called their Simple, Emphatic, and Periphrastic Forms, 
each of which may be used Directly, and Interroga- 
tively. (See p. 92, §6, 7.) 

First The Simple Form of a Tense affirms in fewer 
words than any other Form in that Tense. 

26. John sees the hills. 

27. Leave me to my fate. 
28.. James saw the elephant. " " Past Indefinite. 

Second. The Emphatic Form is a stronger mode of ex- 
pressing a sentence, and is made by adding do, or did, to 
the Simple. 

29. John does see the hills. ) Emphatic Forms. Present 

30. Do leave me to my fate. I Tense. 

31. James did see the elephant. Emphatic Form. Past 
Indefinite. 

Third. The Periphrastic Form, first affirms the existence 
of its subject, and then affirms some act, or state concerning it. 

Periphrastic means a circumlocution, or round-about speaking. 

Rule Second. The Periphrastic Forms are made, in the 
Active Voice, by adding the Third, and in the Passive 
Voice, the Fourth Principal Part to the corresponding 
Tense of the Intransitive Verb, To be. 

32. John is viewing the stars. X TZ = X T+ x Y Z. 

In this example, is affirms John's state of existence, while viewing affirms an 
act concerning John. The sentence is a compound, contracted sentence equiva- 
lent to John is and John views the stars. Its formula is XYZ=XY-\~zYZ. 



264 SUBJECTS NOMINATIVE — OBJECTIVE. [Book IV. 

27. Person and Number are attributed to the Yerb 
to show the possession of these attributes by the Sub- 
ject Nominative, or the subject when in the Nomina- 
tive Case. 

The Noun takes Person and Number to show the properties and relations of 
that, which it names ; the Verb takes Person and Number, not because the af- 
firmer, which it names, has certain properties, but to show that its Subject-Nomi- 
native has these attributes ; in the same manner as this and that become these and 
those to show what number is attributed to their nouns. 

Some suppose that Number is an essential property of a Verb, as it is of a 
Noun. They say ; " One individual can produce only a single act of a certain 
kind by acting once. Several individuals can produce several acts of the same 
kind at the same instant. Thus, I shout ; here is only one actor, and, of course, 
but one act, shout, is caused by a single actor," &c. 

That the above is not the true Philosophy of the Verb is proved by the fact, 
that while all subjects, both Subjects Nominative, and Subjects Objective, have Per- 
son and Number, the Verb takes them only after the Subject Nominative. 

Rule Third. When the subject is in the Nominative 
Case, the Verb takes Person and Number to agree with it ; 
but when the subject is in the Objective Case, the Verb takes 
neither Person nor Number. (See p. 215, a, b.) 

By the term agree in Rule Third is meant that the First, Second, or Third 
Person, and the Singular or Plural Number must be attributed to the Verb, ac- 
cording as these attributes were given to its subject. 

Z 

33. William saw them run. X T ^v* 

Analysis ; Logically, saw is the Second Part, or Act, and has a receiver ; Rhe- 
torically, saw is used as the affirmer of William, which is in the Nominative ; there- 
fore, Grammatically, saw is a Verb. Transitive, because it has a receiver ; and in 
the Active Voice, because its producer is the subject ; Rule First. It is from the 
Verb, to see ; Principal Parts, to see, William saio, seeing, seen. It is Irregular, be- 
cause, &c. (See p. 259, §22.) Imperfect, or Past Indefinite Tense, Simple Form ; 
Third Person, Singular Number, because its subject is in the Nominative Case, and 
Third Person, Singular Number ; Rule Third. 

Logically, Run [to run] is the Act, and can not have a receiver. Rhetorically, 
It is used as the affirmer of a subject in the Objective Case, the name of the pro- 
ducer personated by them ; Intransitive ; from the Verb, to run ; Principal Parts, 
to run, William ran, running, run, Irregular ; Present Tense. It has neither Per- 
son nor Number, because its subject is in the Objective Case ; Rule Third. 

34. Did John hear James coming ? X Y-=^. 

Analysis ; Did hear is the Act and has a receiver. It is used as the affirmer 
of the Nominative-Subject, John; therefore, it is a Verb. Transitive; in the 
Active Voice, because its subject, John, is the name of the producer; Rule First. 
It is from the Verb, to hear, John heard, hearing, heard, Regular ; Imperfect Tense. 
It takes the Third Person, and Singular Number, because its subject is in the 
Nominative Case, and Third, Singular ; Rule Third. 



Prop. 6.] FORMS TO SHOW PERSON — NUMBER. 265 

Coming is the Act. and can not have a receiver. It is used to affirm of the 
Objective-Subject, James ; therefore, it is a Verb. Intransitive. It is from the verb 
to come, Principal Tarts, to cvmc, I came, coming, amie, Irregular; Present Tense. 
It has neither Person nor Number, because its subject, James, is in the Objective 
Case; Rule Third. 

Exception. In the English Language, Rule Third must not 
be applied to a Verb, whose subject is at the same time a sub- 
ject in another sentence. 

35. The captain, perceiving the shoals, altered his course. 

Translation — X, the captain, perceiving the shoals ; Y, altered; Z, his course* 
But X=X, FZ, in which we have ; X, the captain ; Y, perceiving ; Z, the shoals. 

Analysis ; Perceiving is Y, used as the affirmer of captain, and has a receiver; 
therefore, it is a Verb, transitive, active voice, regular, present tense, and has no 
person, or number. See Exception. 

a. Those who prefer to attribute person and number to a verb, whose 
subject is also the subject in another sentence, can do so, by observing 
Rule Third. In this case, perceiving would be Third, Singular. This 
subject will be more fully discussed under*the Participial Mood. 

28. English Verbs in the Second, and generally in 
the Third Persons of the Singular, are modified to 
show the Person and Number of their subjects ; but in 
the First Person Singular, and in all the Persons of the 
Plural, they are not modified to show Person and Num- 
ber ; hence, in the latter instances, the Person and 
Number can only be determined by a reference to the 
subject. 

First Person. Second Person. Third Person* 

Singular. I am, thou art, he is. 

Plural. We are, you are, they arc. 

Singular. I love, thou lovest, he loves, or loveth. 

Plural. We love, you love, they love. 

Of Person. We have no difficulty in perceiving that am is the First Person ; 
art, or lovest, the Second; and is, or loves, and loveth, the Third; but we can not 
tell whether are. or love is the Second Singular, or the First, Second, or Third 
Plural, unless we know the subject. Hence, although the Persons of English 
Verbs are distinctly shown in the Singular Number by their forms, they can not 
be distinguished when both Numbers are taken. 

Of Number. While am, art., lovest, is, loves and loveth, by their forms, unmis. 
takably show the Singular Number, are and love quite as surely do not Are may 

12 



266 SECOND AND THIHD PERSONS. [Book IV. 

be Second Singular, or any Person of the Plural ; while love may be in the First, 
or Second Person of the Singular, or in any Person of the Plural. In short, they 
nave no form, by which their Number can be determined independently of their 
subjects. So that in them Number, like Person, is an attribute not shown by a 
modification. 

39. The Second and Third Persons Singular are 
formed from the First Person by adding est, st, or t, 
for the former, and es, or eth, for the latter ; accord- 
ing to the Rules for forming the Plural of Nouns. 

a. The terminations est and st, in the Second Person Singular, and 
eth in the Third, are used in the Bible, and in solemn address. They 
are also used by the Poets, and by the Friends, or Quakers. 

b. Very many of these forms are contracted, sometimes with, and 
sometimes without the apostrophe ; as — 

Mayes/ is contracted into may's t, or mayst. 
Mightest " " might'st, or mightst. 

Coul&est " " could'st, or couidst. 

c. Some are permanent contractions, as canst, dost, didst, hast, 
hadst, wast, wert, doth, saith, hath, &c. 

d. In familiar discourse, the Friends commonly use the Third Per- 
son Singular, instead of the Second ; except in the Present and Per- 
fect Tenses. . 

36. " Since thou went? [wentest, qr went'st, or wentst,] 
thou knew [knewest, or knew'st] him. 

Eule Fourth. When, by Communication, we is used for 
I, and you for thou, the Verb takes the Plural Form. (See 
p. 184, §8.) 

37. We, George the Third, King of Great Britain, &c, 
do ordain, and establish. 

38. King Philip. Brother of England, you blaspheme in 
this. 

39. Come, My Lord, you are in a merry mood. 

30. A verb, to which Person and # Number are at- 
tributed, is said to be, "Limited by Person and Num- 
ber;" a verb, to which Person and Number are not 
attributed, is said to be, " Unlimited by Person and 
Number." 



Prop. 6.] MOOD, OR MODE. 267 

The idea seems to be entertained, that when the verb takes Person and Num- 
ber, it is limited to a particular kind and number otacts, which could be produced 
by its subject ; bat, when it does not take them, it exx>resaes ; every conceivable act 
of its kind. 

31. Mood, or Mode is that attribute, which the 
Verb derives from the state of mind, or the feeling, in 
which the narration is made. 

a. The term, Mood, refers to those different Mental states, or "Moods," which, 
in ordinary conversation, are usually indicated by the tones, movements, and 
cadences of the voice. Thus, we speak of the tones of the voice as indicating a 
cheerful mood, a sullen mood, an imperative mood, a doubtful mood, or state of 
mind, in the speaker. 

In like manner, the term Mode refers to the verbal structure of sentences, by 
which they represent these different Moods, or Mental states, to the reader. 

Hence, we see that Mood refers to the tones of the voice, and Mode to the 
structure of the sentence ; both having reference to the feelings of the narrator. 
They may be used synonomously in the Grammatical Analysis, since what is here 
true of the one is true of the other also. 

32. English Verbs have four Simple, or Real 
Modes ; the Infinitive, the Participial, the Indicative, 
and the Imperative ; one Compound Mode, the Poten- 
tial; and one Nominal Mode, the Subjunctive. 

a. According to the distinction made in §31, a., there are six moods 
and five modes in the English language. (See Subjunctive Mood.) 

33. A Mood, whose verbs do not have Person and 
Number, is called an Infinite, or Unlimited Mood ; one, 
whose verbs do have Person and Number, is called a 
Limited, or Finite Mood. (See §30, above.) 

34. In English, the Infinite, or Unlimited Modes 
are the Infinitive and the Participial. The Finite, or 
Limited Modes are the Indicative, the Imperative, the 
Potential, and the Subjunctive. 

Rule Fifth. When the Verb takes Person and Number, 
it must be used in a Finite, or Limited Mood ; when the 
Verb does not take Person and Number, it must be used in 
an Injinite, or Unlimited Mood. 

a. After we have decided to which class of the moods a verb be- 
longs, we must determine to which mood of that class it belongs by the 
Definitions, or uses of the different moods. 



268 THE INFINITIVE MOOD, OR MODE. [Book IV. 

35. The Infinitive is an Unlimited Mood. It is al- 
ways used to Name the Verb ; and hence, when used as 
an Affirmer is both a Noun and a Verb. The sign of 
the Infinitive Mood is the word To. The part, to 
which the sign is joined, is called the Verb-Root, or 
the Root of the Verb. 

a. The Infinitive Mood is used when the Verb is the Affirmer in 
Subjective, or in Objective Dependent Sentences. In Dependent Ob- 
jective Sentences, the sign To is often understood. 

40. I knew James to be the man. X Y Yy T> 

Analysis ; To be is the Act. It is one which can not have a receiver. It is used 
both as the Affirmer of James and as the Name of the verb ; therefore, it is a Yerb. 
It is Intransitive ; in the Present Tense ; without Person and Number, because its 
subject, James, is in the Objective Case; Rule Third. Hence, it must be in an 
Unlimited Mood, because it does not take Person and Number ; Rule Fifth. It is 
in the Infinitive Mood, because its subject is in the Objective Case, and the sen- 
tence is Dependent Objective. See Definition of the Infinitive, § 36. 

41. He saw the horse kick the boy; that is, to kick. 

^ 1 XYZ* 

To kick is to be analyzed like to be in the previous example, except that it is 
Transitive, and its Mood Sign, To, is understood. 

3®. In English Verbs, the Infinitive Mood has only 
two Tenses ; the Present, and the Perfect, or First 
Definite Past Tense. 

First. The Present Tense of the Infinitive Mood is one of 
the four Principal, or Leading Parts of the Yerb (see p. 258, 
§20). In the Active Voice, it has the Simple and Peri- 
phrastic Forms ; in the Passive Voice, it has the Periphras- 
tic only. 

a. Its Simple Forms are made by placing the Mood Sign 
To before the Verb-Root. Its Periphrastic Forms are made 
according to Rule Second. 

Irregular, Intransitive ; Regular, Transitive Verb. 

active voice ; corresponding passive voice. 
Simple Forms. Periphrastic Forms. 

To be. To love, — to be loving, — to be loved. 



Prop. 6.] INFINITIVE MOOD — PEREECT TENSE. 269 

42. I knew him to be the man. 

43. I told him to try the examples. 

44. I knew him to be trying the examples. 

45. The examples were to be tried bj him. 

Second. The Perfect, or Definite Past Tense of the In- 
finitive is a Secondary Tense. In the Active Voice, it has 
the Simple and Periphrastic Forms ; in the Passive Voice, 
it has the Periphrastic only. 

a. Its Simple Forms are made by placing the Fourth 
Principal Part after, To have. Its Periphrastic Forms are 
made according to Kule Second. 

Simple Forms. Periphrastic Forms. 

Intransitive Verb. Active Voice. Corresponding Passive Voice. 
To have been. To have loved. — to have been loving. — to have been loved. 

46. We knew him to have been the man. X Y ^ 

47. To suppose the child to have influenced the mother is 
natural. 

48. To suppose the child to have been influencing the 
mother is natural. 

49. It is natural to suppose the mother to have been influ- 
enced by the child. 

50. I saw him give the book to the boy. That is, to give. 

51. The lessons ought to be recited daily. 

52. John ought to have studied his lessons. 

53. Our crops ought to have been* gathered. 

54. I felt myself [to be~] slipping down the bank. 

55. We ought to have been gathering our crops. 

b. We next propose to call your attention to a remarkable class of 
examples, common to all languages, and hitherto unexplained by 
grammarians, although they plainly contradict several of the leading 
"Rules of Syntax" For instance, "A noun, or pronoun, used as the 
subject of a verb, must be in the Nominative Case ;" and, "A Verb, in 
the Infinitive, can not have a Nominative before it." In the following 
examples, we have verbs in the Infinitive and their subjects in the Nom- 
inative Case ; and we have before shown that subjects may be in the 
Objective, as well as in the Nominative. (See p. 217.) 



270 REMARKABLE EXCEPTIONS TO RULE THIRD. [Book IV. 

' c. When the Subject of a Subjective Dependent Sentence is put into 
the Nominative Case, which is sometimes done for convenience, the 
verb still remains in the Infinitive Mood, and we have a verb in the In- 
finitive; and, of course, without Person or Number, while its Subject is 
in the Nominative Case ! (See Rule Third, p. 264.) 

5Q. He was supposed, by all persons, to have been our 
friend. XYX Y Xm 

Translation — Z, He to have been our friend ; Y, was supposed ; X, by all per- 
sons. But Z is equal to XYX; X, he ; Y, to have been ; X, our friend. 

Here, we see plainly, that He is in the Nominative Case, while to have been, 
which is the affirmer of he, is in the Infinitive Mood ; and, of course, has neither 
Person nor Number, although its subject is thus apparently in the Nominative. 
Let us attempt a solution. 

Active Form ; Ail persons supposed him to have been our friend. 

yy Z 

A XYX' 

Passive Form ; Him to have been our friend is supposed by all per- 
sons. Yyx^^-' 

Here, is supposed is evidently the affirmer of the Sentential noun, him to have 
been our friend. 

Now, by usage, him is changed to he and, is supposed takes Person and Num- 
ber from it, as from a real subject in the Nominative ; while to have been, the real 
affirmer of him, still remains without Person or Number, as if its subject still re- 
mained in the Objective form, or him, and we have — 

He [Him] is supposed to have been our friend by all persons. 

In the following example, are supposed, evidently takes Person and Number 
from they, its fictitious subject, which is third, Plural; instead of taking them from 
the Sentential Noun, them to have come, its real subject, which is third) Singular* 

57. They are supposed to have come. 

That is, them to have come is supposed. 

58. They are said to have come from the city. 

59. She is known to have gone thither. 

60. The children were known to have been sick, 

61. Saturn is said to have come into Italy. 

Saturn to have come into Italy is said [by some one]. 

37. When the Infinitive Mode is used solely as a 
subject, or as an object ; or, when it is a Noun only, it 
is called a Verbal Noun. Verbal refers to its Form, and 
Noun to its use. (See p. 205, § 11.) 



Prop. 6.] THE INFINITIVE AS A VERBAL NOUN. 271 

62. Play is exercise. X YX. 

63. To play is to exercise. X TX, 

Analysis ; To play is the First Part, or X, used as the subject of an indepen > 
dent simple sentence ; therefore, it is a Verbal Noun, in the Infinitive Form, or 
Mode ; it is not used here as an Affirmer. It is Neuter, Third, Singular, and used 
as a Nc.«ni native, because, "All subjects of Independent sentences are in tho 
Nominative." It is Indeclinable. (See p. 218, Fifth.) 

a. In examples sixty-two and sixty-three, play and to play, 
the Ordinary and the Verbal Common Nouns, do not differ 
in use, but in form. Hence, we see, that the Infinitive may 
always be known to be a Verbal Noun, when its place may 
be supplied by a Common Noun. 

64. He desires to improve. XYZ. He desires improve- 
ment XYZ. 

65. They were, so to speak, saved by a miracle. Z,+ 
Z Yx, TX. 

They were, if so to speak be permitted [by you], saved by a miracle. 

They were, if such speech be permitted [by X], &c. 

Notice, that to speak, and speech are analyzed alike, except in classifying them. 
To speak is a Verbal, Cormnon Noun and is indeclinable; Speech is a Common Noun 
and is declinable. 

66. The shipmen were about to flee. X Y. 

Analysis ; To flee belongs to the Second part, or Y, and is used as the second 
object of were, to which its relation is shown by about. It has the Infinitive Form, 
but is used only as an object; therefore, it is a Verbal Noun. It is Neuter, Third, 
Singular, and in the Objective. (Eule Fifth, p. 218.) It is indeclinable. 

b. In Modern English, when a Verbal Noun is used as a 
Second Object, its relator is usually understood. In Old Eng- 
lish writings it is usually expressed. 

MODERN ENGLISH. OLD ENGLISH. 

67. We are going/\to sleep. We are going for to sleep. 

68. Strive/\to improve. Strive for to improve. 

69. Strive for improvement. 

70. I am in haste/\to return. I am in haste for to return. 

71. The ship was ready to sail. The ship was ready for, &c. 

c. The Mood-Sign of a Verbal Noun in the Infinitive Mode 
is often understood, as in the following — 

72. " The Verbs bid, dare, see, feel, let, hear," &c, mean- 
ing the Verbs to bid, to dare, &c. 



272 PARTICIPIAL MOOD, OR PAETICIPLE. [Book IV. 

88, In English, the Participial Mood, or the Par- 
ticiple is an Infinite or Unlimited Mood. It is used 
when the Subject of the verb, in a sub-joined sentence, 
is also a subject, or an object in another sentence at 
the same time. (See p. 101, §4.) 

73. The boy, being diligent, won the prize. -=— YZ. 

Translation — The hoy., being diligent, icon the prize is a compound sentence, 
formed by the Primary Clause, the boy won the prize, and the Sub-joined Clause, 
being diligent ; hence, we hare X, the boy, being diligent ; Y, won ; Z, the prize. 
But X is equal to X Y, in which we have X, the boy diligent ; Y, being. 

Analysis ; Being is the act, and can not hare a receiver ; used as the affirmer 
of boy, the subject of the Primary Clause ; therefore, it is an intransitive verb. It 
is from the verb to be, Principal Parts ; To be, I was, being, been, Irregular ; 
Present Tense ; without Person or Number, and hence, in an Infinite or Un- 
limited Mood. It is put into the Participial Mood, because boy, its Subject, is also 
the subject of the Primary Clause. (See Definition.) 

a. Participial, or Participle comes from a Latin word meaning to share, 
to partake ; this Mood is so called, because its subject is shared with an- 
other verb, or because it participates in the object of another verb. 

h. The Participle is usually described, as being both an adjunct and 
also an affirmer of its subject ; and hence, being both an adjective and 
a verb, is called a Participle. But how, in example seventy-three, can 
being be said to be an adjunct of boy, with any more propriety than 
won can be so called. See also blowing in example seventy-four. 

74. Wind, blowing a hurricane, is only air in motion. 

In this example, wind is the subject of is ; but at the same time blowing, a verb 
in the sub-joined dependent sentence, is used as the affirmer of wind also; and 

•hence, participates with is in its subject. 

75. We perceived a noble craft buffeting the waves. 

Y Y Z 
Z, YZ. 

Analysis ; Buffeting is the Act, used as an affirmer in the sub-joined sentence, 
buffeting the waves. Its subject is craft, the first object in the primary clause, We 
perceived a noble craft ; therefore, it is a verb ; transitive in the active voice ; Rule 
First; from the verb to buffet, I buffeted, craft buffeting, buffeted, regular; present 
Tense; without Person or dumber, because its subject is in the objective; 
hence, it is in an unlimited Mood ; the Participial is used, because the subject is 
also an object in another sentence. Rule Fifth. 

30. In English Verbs, the Participial Mood is used 
in three Tenses, the Present, the First Definite Past, 



Trop. 6.] PARTICIPIAL MOOD. 273 

or Compound Perfect Participle, and the Indefinite 
Past, or Perfect Participle. 

a. The terms, Compound Perfect and Perfect, are retained, because 
they are generally familiar to students of language, and hence, may be 
familiarly used in the rules for forming the Tenses. 

40. The Present Tense of the Participial Mood, or 
the Present Participle, is the Third Leading, or Princi- 
pal Part of the Verb. In the Active Voice, it has the 
Simple Form ; and in the Passive, the Periphrastic. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by adding ing to the Verb- 
Root. Its Periphrastic is formed according to Rule Second. 
(See p. 263.) 

Simple Forms. Periphrastic Form. 

Intransitive; Bem#. Trans. Active; "Loving. Passive ; Being loved. 

b. The Periphrastic form in the Active Voice is being loving; it is 
seldom used. 

76. I, being ready, came. 

77. The vessel, appearing just at that time, was joyfully 
hailed. 

78. I saw the boat moving slowly up the river. 

79. A youth, beginning to use tobacco, has just entered the 
preparatory school of intemperance. 

80. The village was destroyed by an avalanche sliding 
down the mountain. 

81. Nero, being hated by all men, hated all men. 

82. I saw the lady in a carriage drawn by two horses. 
Y 

X Y,YX Z m 

Translation — X, I ; Y, saw in a carriage drawn by two horses ; Z, the lady. 
But Y=Yj 71, in which Y, saw in a carriage ; Y, drawn ; X, by two horses. 

4 1 . The Definite Past, or Compound Perfect Parti- 
ciple, is a Secondary Tense. It has two Forms in the 
Active ; the Simple, and the Periphrastic ; and one 
Form in the Passive ; the Periphrastic. 

12* 



274 DEFINITE PAST TENSE, [Book IV. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by placing the Fourth Prin- 
cipal Part after having; its Periphrastic is formed according 
to Rule Second. 

Simple Forms. Periphrastic Forms. 

Having been. Act. Having loved, Having been loving. Pass. — loved. 

83. The nurse, having dressed the child, began to dress 
herself. 

Analysis; Having dressed is an Act, and has a receiver; it is used as the af- 
firmer of nurse, the subject of another sentence; therefore, it is a verb, transitive, 
m the Active Voice; Rule First. It is from the verb to dress, I, or the nurse 
dressed, dressing, dressed, Eegular; Definite Past Tense, or it is the Compound 
Perfect Participle ; without Person and Number, because its subject is also the sub- 
ject of another sentence, Exception to Rule Third; hence, it is used in an Infinite 
or Unlimited Mood; the Participial is used, because the verb participates in the 
subject of another sentence, and is also the affirmer of a sub-joined sentence, 
(ftee p. 265, a.) 

84. The nurse, having been dressing the child, began to 
dress herself. ~7Z 

85. The nurse, having been dressed, began to dress the 

child, ^-rz. 

42. The Definite Past Tense, or Perfect Participle, 
is the Fourth Principal Part of the verb. It is formed 
from the Passives of the Present, and of the Compound 
Perfect Participles by dropping being and having 
been. This explains why it is always in the Passive 
Voice. 

a. The Perfect Participle of Eegular Verbs may be 
formed by adding ed to the Verb-Eoot (see p. 258, § 21). 
If the Verb be Irregular, its Perfect Participle may be 
learned from the list of Irregular Verbs, which^hould be 
studied very carefully. 

86. The moon, enlightened by the sun, enlightens the 
earth. 

The moon, being enlightened by the sun, enlightens the earth. 

87. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

Truth, having been crushed to earth, shall rise again. 



Prop. 6.] OR PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 275 

88. "Man, always /\ afflicted, would be sullen and de- 
spondent." 

89. The truth, (having been) discovered by degrees, at 
length became fully known. 

90. She, (being) loved by all, loved all in return. 

91. Having completed his task, he was dismissed. 

92. He, his task having been completed, was dismissed. 

93. He, his task/\ completed, was dismissed. 

94. Vice,/\ shunned in the season of youth, is seldom em- 
braced in riper years. 

95. The leaders,/^ encouraged by our advice, encouraged 
their men to persevere. 

Conjugation op the Participial Mood, or Mode. 

Present Tense. Third Principal Part. 

Intransitives. Transitives. 

1. Simple. Being (to be). Active Voice. Corres. Pass. Voice. 

2. Periphrastic. Wanting. 

1. Simple. Appearing. I. Loving. — 

2. Periphrastic. . — 2. being loved. 

1. Simple. Coming. 1. Doing. 

2. Periphrastic. 2. being done. 

Definite Past Tense, Compound Perfect Participle. 

Intransitives. Transitives. 

Having been. Active. Corresponding Passive. 

Wanting. • 

Having appeared. Having loved. 

Having been appearing. Having been loving. Having been loved. 

Having come. Having known. 

Having been coming. Having been knowing. Having been known. 

Indefinite Past Tense, or Perfect Participle. 

Fourth Principal Part.. 
Intransitives drop having. Transitives drop being and having been. 

Been. Used in the Passive Voice only. 

Appeared. Loved, 

from being, or having been loved. 



Come. Done. 

Seen. 



276 PARTICIPIAL MODE AS A NOUN. [Book IV 

The Participial Mode used as a Noun. 

b. The Participial Mode, like the Infinitive, is often used 
as a Noun. When so used it is called a Verbal, or a Parti- 
cipial Noun. (See p. 205, § 11.) It differs from other Nouns 
in that it is not used in the apostrophic form of the Possessive 
Case. Like the Infinitive, its place may be supplied by a 
Common Noun. (See p. 270, § 37.) 

96. Play is exercise. Common Nouns. 

97. To play is to exercise. Verbal, Infinitive Common 
Nouns. 

98. Playing is exercising. Verbal, Participial Common 
Nouns. 

99. The rising in this Province was followed by similar 
risings in the other Provinces. 

Analysis ; Rising names the Third Part, or Z, and is used as the subject of an 
independent sentence ; therefore, it is a Noun. It is a Verbal Noun, in the form 
of the Participial Mode, and is, therefore, called a Verbal, Participial Noun; 
Neuter, Third, Singular, and in the Nominative ; Rule First, Nouns. (See p. 217.) 
It is declined — 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

Singular. Rising, Here ! Rising, Of rising. 

Plural Risings, Risings, Of risings. 

100. "Lying rides on debt's back." 

101. Eating too much is gluttony. 

102. Ciphering literally means doing nothing. 

103. The pupils were exercising in reading, drawing, wri- 
ting, and singing. 

104. "When all was hushed, at even-tide, I heard the bay- 

ing of their beagle ; 
Be hush'd ! my Connocht Moran cried, 'tis but the scream- 
ing of the eagle." 

105. "All trespassing on these grounds is strictly forbidden." 

106. The people live by hunting and fishing. 

107. The loving and the loved were there. 

108. The conquering everywhere pursued the conquered. 

109. " The King of men ; the loved of heaven." 

110. "Even a child is known by his doings." 



Pkop. 6.] PARTICIPIAL MODE AS AN ADJECTIVE. 277 

111. The history of the beginning of the world is found in 
the Bible. 

112. The Art of Painting is one of the Fine Arts. 

113. The reward of the miser is the trouble of getting and 
of keeping. 

c. The Participial Mode is often used as an Adjunct of a 
Noun ; when so used, it is called a Participial Adjective, or a 
Verbal Adjective, in the Participial Form. (See p. 233, § 2.) 

114. The growing grain was waving in the murmuring 
breeze. 

Analysis ; Growing is a part of the Producer, used as an Adjunct of grain to 
show quality ; therefore, it is an Adjective. It is in the Participial Form, and 
hence, is called a Verbal, or Participial Adjective. It is not compared. 

115. This much admired lady was admired so much, that 
she became the admired of all admiring admirers. 

116. " Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased, 
Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow, 
Raze out the written troubles of the brain, 
And, with some sweet oblivious antidote, 
Cleanse the stuffed bosom of that perilous stuff, 
Which weighs upon the heart ?" 

Indicative Mood, or Mode. 

43. The Indicative is a Finite, or Limited Mood, or 
Mode. It is used in direct narration ; as, in history, 
<&c, and also in asking questions. The former is called 
its Direct, and the latter, its Interrogative Form. 

The Direct Forms are made according to Special Rules for each 
Tense ; but the Interrogative Forms are made as follows ; — 

Rule Sixth. When no Auxiliary is used, place the Sub- 
ject after the Principal verb ; but, when an Auxiliary is used, 
place the Subject after the first auxiliary, and punctuate with 
the Interrogative Period. (See p. 130, § 5.) 

Direct. I am. I hate. I do hate. I am hating. I am hated. 

Interrog. Am 1 1 Hate I ? Do I hate 1 Am I hating ? Am I hated * 



278 THE INDICATIVE MOOD, OH MODE. [Book IV. 

First Suggestion. We do not give the Person and Number of the verb, as is 
usually done ; because, if the pupils have properly studied the preceding instruc- 
tions, they can determine these attributes for themselves. (See p. 264, §27.) 

Second Suggestion. Generally, when one person is addressed, You and its cor- 
responding verb are used in the place of Thou and its corresponding verb ; as, 
You are, instead of Thou art. (See p. 227, b., also, Eule Fourth, p. 266.) Hence, 
it is not necessary to repeat this form in the Singular number. 

Third Suggestion. Wherever He is used, She and It may also be used ; as these 
are omitted merely to save space. In reciting, the students should supply these, 
or other Subjects. 

Fourth Suggestion. Ye is used in the plural only ; you may be used in either 
number. (See p. 227, &.) 

44. The Indicative Mood is used in all the Tenses. 
In the Active Voice, the Present and the Imperfect are 
used in the Simple, the Emphatic, and the Periphrastic 
Forms ; while the remaining four tenses are used in 
the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. In the Pas- 
sive Voice, the Periphrastic is the only Form used in 
any of the tenses. (See p. 263, §26.) 

Exception First. The Irregular Verb to be, also the Defectives, may, 
can, must, ought, and shall, do not have the Emphatic or Periphrastic 
Forms. 

45. The Present Tense of the Indicative Mood, is 
a Secondary Tense. 

a. Its Simple Form is the Verb-Root. The Emphatic 
adds the auxiliary, do, to the Simple Form. The Periphras- 
tic is formed according to Rule Second. (See p. 263.) 

Exception Second. The Irregular Verb to be, in the Indicative Pres- 
ent, has am instead of the Verb-Root be, which was formerly in use ; 
thus, in the Bible, " We be twelve brethren." 

Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I am, Thou art, He is. We are, Ye, or You are, They are. 
Am I ? Art thou 1 Is he ? Are we ? Are ye, or you ? Are they ? 

See exceptions, first and second, above. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I love, Thou lovest, He loves. 

Plu. We love, Ye, or You love, They love. 

Sin. Love I ? Lovest thou ? Loves he ? 

Plu. Love we ? Love ye, or you ? Love they ? 



Prop. 6.] PRESENT — IMPERFECT TENSE. 279 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I do love, Thou dost love, He docs love. 

Plu. We do love, Ye, or you do love, They do love. 

Sin. Do I love ? Dost thou love 1 Does he love ? 

Plu . Do we love ? Do ye, or you love ? Do they love ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin, I am loving, Thou art loving, He is loving. 

Plu. We are loving, Ye, or you are loving, They are loving. 
Sin, Am I loving ? Art thou loving ? Is he loving % 

Plu. Are we loving ? Are ye, or you loving ? Are they loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I am loved, Thou art loved, He is loved. 

Plu. We are loved, Ye, or you are loved, They are loved. 
Sin* Am I loved ? Art thou loved ? Is he loved ? 

P/u. Are we loved ? Are ye, or you loved ? Are they loved ? 

JF7/2:A Suggestion. If the students be required to take a sentence in X YZ, and 
give it in full in the active, and its Z YX form in the passive, the value of this 
exercise will be greatly increased ; especially, if an Irregular Verb be taken ; as, 
Simple, Direct, I break the string, thou breakest the string, &c. Interrogative, 
Break I the string ? &c. Emphatic, Direct, I do break the string, &c. Interroga- 
tive, Do I break the string? &c. Periphrastic, Direct, I am breaking the string, 
&c. Interrogative, Am I breaking the string ? &c. Corresponding Passive, 
Direct, The string is broken by me. The string is broken by thee, or you, &c. In- 
terrogative, Is the string broken by me ? &c. If this suggestion be used with each 
tense, the time required to become familiar with the English Yerb will be much 
less than is usually required. 

4©. The Imperfect, or Indefinite Past Tense, or 
Past Tense of the Indicative Mood of To be, Intransi- 
tive ; and of To love, Transitive. 

a. The Simple Form of the Indicative Mood, Imperfect 
Tense, is the Second Principal Part of the Verb. (See 
p. 258, § 20.) The Emphatic is formed by adding did to the 
Simple. The Periphrastic is formed according to Rule Sec- 
ond, page 263. 

Exceptions. In this Mood, the Imperfect Tense of the verb To be 
is Was. 

Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I was, Thou wast, He was. 

Plu. We were, Ye, or you were, They were. 

Sin. Was 1 1 Wast thou 1 Was he ? 

Plu. Were we ? Were ye, or you ? Were they 1 



280 INDICATIVE, IMPERFECT — PERFECT. [Book IV, 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
Sin. I loved, Thou lovedst, He loved, 

Plu. We loved, Ye, or you loved, They loved. 

Sin. Loved I ? Lovedst thou ? Loved he 1 

Plu. Loved we ? Loved ye, or you ? Loved they 1 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
Sin. I did love, Thou didst love, He did love. 

Plu. We did love, Ye, or you did love, They did love. 
Sin. Did I love i Didst thou love ? Did he love ? 

Plu. Did we love ? Did ye, or you love ? Did they love ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
Sin. I was loving, Thou wast loving, He was loving. 

Plu. We were loving, Ye, or you were loving, They were loving. 
Sin. Was I loving ? Wast thou loving ? Was he loving ? 

Plu. Were we loving ? Were ye, or you loving ? Were they loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
Sin. I was loved, Thou wast loved, He was loved. 

Plu. We were loved, Ye, or you were loved, They were loved. 
Sin. Was I loved % Wast thou loved ? Was he loved ? 

Plu. Were we loved ? Were ye, or you loved ? Were they loved ? 

b. In this tense, the verb may, becomes might ; can, could; 
shall, should ; will, would ; ought, ought 

47. The Perfect Tense, or the First Definite Past 
Tense of the Indicative Mood, is a Secondary Tense. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by adding the Fourth Princi- 
pal Part to have, or has. Its Periphrastic is formed by Rule 
Second, 

Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

Sin. I have been, Thou hast been, He has been. 

Plu. We have been, Ye, or you have been, They have been. 
Sin. Have I been ? Hast thou been ? Has he been ? 

PZw. Have we been 1 Have ye, or you been ? Have they been ? 

# 
Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

Sin. I have loved, Thou hast loved, He has loved. 

Plu. We have loved, Ye, or you have loved, They have loved. 

Sin, Have I loved 1 Hast thou loved ? Has he loved ? 

PZw. Have we loved ? Have ye ; or you loved ? Have they loved ? 



Prop. 6.] PERFECT — PLUPERFECT TENSE. ' 281 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I have been loving, Thou hast been loving, He has been loving. 
We have been — Ye, or you have been — They ha: r e been loving. 
Have I been loving? Hast thou been loving ? Has he been loving ? 
Have we been — Have ye, or you been — Have they been loving 1 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I have been loved, Thou hast been loved, He has been loved. 
We have been loved, Ye, or you have been — They have been loved. 
Have I been loved ? Hast thou been loved ? Has he been loved 1 
Have we been — Have ye, or you been — Have they been loved ? 

See Fifth Suggestion, under Present Tense. 

48. The Pluperfect Tense, or the Second Definite 
Past Tense of the Indicative Mood, is a Secondary 
Tense. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by adding had to the Fourth 
Principal Part. Its Periphrastic is formed according to 
Eule Second. (See § 44.) 

Simple Fornis, Direct and Interrogative. 
I had been, Thou hadst been, He had been. 

We had been, Ye, or you had been, They had been. 

Had I been ? Hadst thou been ? Had he been ? 

Had we been ? Had ye, or you been % Had they been ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I had loved, Thou hadst loved, He had loved. 

We had loved, Ye, or you had loved, They had loved. 

Had I loved ? Hadst thou loved ? Had he loved % 

Had we loved ? Had ye, or you loved % Had they loved ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I had been loving, Thou hadst been loving, He had been loving. 

We had been loving, Ye, or you had been — They had been loving. 
Had I been loving ? Hadst thou been loving? Had he been loving ? 
Had they been loving 3 Had ye, or you been — Had they been loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I had been loved, Thou hadst been loved, He had been loved. 

We had been loved, Ye, or you had been— They had been loved. 
Had I been loved ? Hadst thou been loved ? Had he been loved ? 
Had we been loved ? Had ye, or you been— Had they been loved ? 



282 INDICATIVE — FIRST — SECOND FUTURE. [Book IV. 

49. The First Future Tense, or the Future Indefi- 
nite of the Indicative Mood> is a Secondary Tense. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by adding the auxiliaries 
Shall, or Will to the Verb-Root.* Its Periphrastic is formed 
according to Rule Second. (See § 44.) 

Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I shall, or will be, Thou shalt, or wilt be, He shall, or will be. 

We shall, or will be, Ye, or you shall — be, They shall, or will be. 

Shall, or will I be ? Shalt, or wilt thou be ? Shall, or will he be 1 

Shall, or willwe be 1 Shall — ye, or you be % Shall, or will they be 1 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I shall, or will love, Thou shalt love, He shall love. 

We shall, or will love, Ye, or you shall love, They shall love. 
Shall, or will I love 1 Shalt thou love ? Shall he love 1 

Shall, or will we love ? Shall ye, or you love 1 Shall they love r i 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I shall be loving, Thou shalt be loving, He shall be loving. 

'We shall be loving, Ye, or you shall be — They shall be loving. 
Shall I be loving ? Shalt thou be loving % Shall he be loving ? 

Shall we be loving ? Shall ye, or you be — Shall they be loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I shall be loved, Thou shalt be loved, He shall be loved. 

We shall be loved, Ye, or you shall be — They shall be loved. 
Shall I be loved-? Shalt thou be loved 1 Shall he be loved 1 

Shall we be loved ? Shall ye, or you be — Shall they be loved ? 

5®. The Second Future Tense, or the Future Defi- 
nite of the Indicative Mood, is a Secondary Tense. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by adding the auxiliaries 
Shall have, or Will have, to the Fourth Principal Part of the 
Verb.* Its Periphrastic is formed according to Rule Second. 

Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I shall have been, Thou shalt have been, He shall have been. 

We shall have been, Ye, or you shall have — They shall have been. 
Shall I have been ? Shalt thou have been ? Shall he have been % 
Shall we have been ? Shall ye, or you have — Shall they have been 1 ? 

* Let the student supply will in the Paradigms, where it is omitted. 



PROr. 6.] SECOND FUTURE — IMPERATIVE MOOD. 283 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I shall have loved, Thou shalt have loved, He shall have loved. 

We shall have loved, Ye, or you shall have — They shall have loved. 
Shall I have loved ? Shalt thou have loved ? Shall he have loved ? 
Shall we have loved } Shall ye, or you have — Shall they have loved ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I shall, or will have been loving, Shall, or will I have been loving ? 

Thou shalt — have been loving, Shalt — thou have been loving ? 

He shall, or will have been loving, Shall, or will he have been loving ? 

We shall, or will have been loving, Shall, or will we have been loving ? 

Ye, or you shall — have been — Shall —ye, or you have been — 

They shall — have been loving. Shall, or will they have been loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I shall, or will have been loved, Shall, or will I have been loved ? 

Thou shalt — have been loved, Shalt, or wilt thou have been loved ? 

He shall, or will have been loved, Shall, or will he have been loved ? 

We shall, or will have been loved, Shall, or will we have been loved ? 

Ye, or you shall — have been — Shall — ye, or you have been loved ? 

They shall, or will have been loved. Shall, or will they have been loved ? 

The Imperative Mood, or Mode. 

51. The Imperative is a Limited, or Finite" Mood, 
used directly in commanding, entreating, permitting, 
and advising. In English, it is always in the Present 
Tense. 

52. In the Active Voice, it has the Simple, the 
Emphatic, and the Periphrastic Forms ; in the Passive, 
it has the Periphrastic only. 

53. The Present Tense of the Imperative Mood is 
a Secondary Tense, used in the Second Person only. 

a. Its Simple Form is the Verb-Root. Its Emphatic adds 
do to the Simple. Its Periphrastic is formed according to 
Rule Second. 

Simple Form. Be thou, or be you, Be ye, or be you. Contracted, Be. 
Emphatic. Do thou, or do you be, Do ye, or do you be. Con., Do be. 
Simple Form. Love thou, or you, Love ye, or you. 

Emphatic. Do thou, or you love, Do ye, or you love. 



284 IMPERATIVE MOOD — POTENTIAL. [Book IV. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

First Form. Be thou, or you loving, Be ye, or you loving. 

Second Form. Do thou, or you be loving, Do ye, or you be loving. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, First and Second. 
Be thou, or you loved, Be ye, or you loved. Contracted, Be loved. 
Do thou, or you be loved, Do ye, or you be loved. Con., Do be loved. 

b. Frequently a sentence, containing this Mood, is con- 
tracted so that the Affirmer only is expressed. (See p. 119.) 

117. Commanding. Arise, shine; for thy light has come. 

118. Charge, Chester, charge! 

119. Lade your beasts, and go, get you unto the land of 
Canaan ; and take your father, and your household's, and come 
unto me. 

120. Entreating. Give us, this day, our daily bread. 

121. Do allow me to address you on this subject. 

122. Permitting. Go, and joy attend you ! That is, may — 

123. Advising. Help such as need help. 

124. Never do that for your pupils, which they should do 
for themselves. 

125. Beware of the leaven of the Sadducees. 

Potential Mood, or Mode. 

54. The Potential is a Compound Mood, made by 
the union of an Indicative and an Infinitive, whose sign 
is usually omitted. 

55. The Indicative Part affirms possibility, prob- 
ability, or necessity, in regard to the performance of 
an act, which is named by the Infinitive Part. (p. 36.) 

126. I can recite my lesson. That is, I can to recite my 
lesson. 

Can affirms the possibility on the part of the subject to perform that act, which 
is named by the Infinitive part, [to] recite. 

a. The sign of the Infinitive part is sometimes expressed ; as, He 
ought to obey. 

b. The different uses of this mood are signified by auxiliaries ; thus, 
possibility is signified by can, or could ; probability, by may, or might ; 
necessity, by must, should, or ought. 



Prop. 6.] POTENTIAL MOOD — PRESENT TENSE. 285 

c. There are several other Potential Forms used, which are not gen- 
erally reckoned as such ; the first part being parsed as an Indicative ; 
and the second part as an Infinitive ; as, I mean to go. He intends to lec- 
ture. We have to perform our duties. These, and such as these, may 
very properly bo parsed as potentials ; or, each Potential may be parsed 
as an Indicative and an Infinitive. In the latter case, the Infinitive is 
either a Jirst, or a second object of the Indicative part. (See p. 270.) 

5&. The Present Tense of the Potential Mood is a 
Secondary Tense. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by adding the Verb- Root to 
the auxiliaries, may, can, or must The Periphrastic is formed 
according to Rule Second. (See § 54.) 

Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I may, can, or must be, May, can, or must I be ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must be, Mayst, canst, or must thou be ? 
He may, can, or must be. May, can, or must he be ? 

We may, can, or must be, May, can, or must we be ? 

Ye, or you may, can, or must be, May, can, or must ye, or you be ? 
They may, can, or must be. May, can, or must they be % 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I may, can, or must love, May, can, or must I love ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must lore, Mayst, canst, or must thou love ? 
He may, can, or must love. May, can, or must he love ? 

We may, can, or must love, May, can, or must we love ? 

Ye, or you may, can, or must love, May, can, or must ye, or you love ? 
They may, can, or must love. May, can, or must they love % 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I may, can, or must be loving, May, can, or must I be loving 1 
Thou mayst, canst, or must be — Mayst, canst, or must thou be — 
He may, can, or must be loving. May, can, or must he be loving ? 
We may, can, or must be loving, May, can, or must we be loving 1 
You may, can, or must be loving, May, can, or must you be loving ? 
They may, can, or must be loving. May, can, or must they be loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must be loved, May, can, or must I be loved 1 

Thou mayst, canst, or must be — Mayst, canst, or must thou be — 

He may, can,* or must be loved. May, can, or must he be loved ? 

We may, can, or must be loved, May, can, or must we be loved ? 

You may, can, or must be loved, May, can, or must you be loved ? 

They may, can, or must be loved. May, can, or must they be loved 1 



286 POTENTIAL MOOD, IMPERFECT TENSE. [Book: IV. 

57. The Imperfect Tense of the Potential Mood is 
a Secondary Tense. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by adding the Verb-Root to 
the auxiliaries, might, could, would, or should. Its Peri- 
phrastic is formed according to Rule Second, (p. 263.) 

Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, would, or should be, Might, could, would, or should I be? 
Thou mightst, couldst, &c, be, Mightst, couldst, &c, thou be? 
He might, could, would, &c, be. Might, could, would, &c, he be ? 
We might, could, would, &c, be, Might, could, would, &c, we be ? 
You might, could, would, &c, be, Might, could, would, &c, you be? 
They might, could, would, &c, be. Might, could, would, &c, they be ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, would, &c, love, Might, could, would, &c, I love ? 
Thou mightst, couldst, &c, love, Mightst, couldst, &c, thou love ? 
He might, could, would, &c, love. Might, could, would, &c, he love ? 
We might, could, would, &c, love, Might, could, would, &c, we love ? 
You might, could, would, &c, love, Might, could, would, &c, you love? 
They might, could, &c, love. Might, could, would, &c, they love ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c, be loving, Might, could, &c, I be loving? 

Thou mightst, &c., be loving, Mightst, &c, thou be loving ? 

He might, could, &c., be loving. Might, could, &c, he be loving ? 

We might, could, &c, be loving, Might, could, &c., we be loving ? 

You might, could, &c, be loving, Might, could, &c, you be loving"? 

They might, could, &c, be loving. Might, could, &c, they be loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c, be loved, Might, could, &c., I be loved? 

Thou mightst, &c, be loved, Mightst, &c, thou be loved? 

He might, could, &c, be loved. Might, could, &c, he be loved ? 

We might, could, &c, be loved, Might, could, &c, we be loved ? 

You might, could, &c, be loved, Might, could, &c, you beloved? 

They might, could, &c, be loved. Might, could, &c, they be loved? 

127. He would not come, because he could not afford the 
expense. » 

128. William ought to do his duty, and therefore he must. 

In regard to ought to do, see page 285, c. It may be parsed either as a Poten* 
tial) or as an Indicative and an Infinitive. (See p. 284, §54, 56.) 



Prop. 6.] PERFECT, OR FIRST DEFINITE PAST TENSE. 287 

58. The Perfect Tense, or First Definite Past, is a 
Secondary Tense. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by adding the Fourth Princi- 
pal Part to the auxiliaries, may have, can have, or must have. 
Its Periphrastic is formed according to Rule Second. 
Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must have been, May, can, or must I have been ? 
Thou mayst, canst, or must have — Mayst, canst, or must thou have — 
He may, can, or must have been. May, can, or must he have been ? 
We may, can, or must have been, May, can, or must we have been ? 
You may, can, or mast have been, May, can, or must you have been ? 
They may, can, or must have been. May, can, or must they have been ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must have loved, May, can, or must I have loved ? 
Thou mayst, canst, or must have — Mayst, canst, or must»thou have — 
He may, can, or must have loved. May^ can, or must he have loved ? 
We may, can, or must have loved, May, can, or must we have loved ? 
You may, can, or must have loved, May, can, or must you have loved ? 
They may, can, or must have loved. May, can, or must they have loved ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, &c, have been loving May, can, &c., I have been loving? 
Thou mayst, &c, have been loving, Mayst, &c, thou have been loving ? 
He may, &c, have been loving. May, &c, he have been loving ? 
We may, &c, have been loving, May, &c, we have been loving? 
You may, &c, have been loving, May, &c, you have been loving ? 
They may, &c, have been loving. May, &c, they have been loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, &c, have been loved, May, can, &c, I have been loved ? 
Thou mayst, &c, have been loved, Mayst, &c., thou have been loved? 
He may, &c, have been loved. May, &c, he have been loved ? 
We may, &c, have been loved, May, &c, we have been loved ? 
You may, &c, have been loved, May, &c, you have been loved? 
They may, &c, have been loved. May, &c, they have been loved? 

129. May every year but bring more near the time, when 
strife shall cease. 

130. Do unto others, as you would that they should do 
to you. 

131. Can gold postpone the mortal hour? 



288 POTENTIAL MOOD — PLUPERFECT TENSE. [Book IV. 

59. The Pluperfect Tense, or Second Definite Past, 
is a Secondary Tense. 

a. Its Simple Form is made by adding the Fourth Princi- 
pal Part of the Verb to the auxiliaries, might have, could 
have, would have, or should have. Its Periphrastic is formed 
according to Rule Second. 

Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c, have been, Might, could, &c, I have been ? 
Thou mightst, &c, have been, Mightst, &c, thou have been ? 

He might, could, &c, have been. Might, could, &c, he have been ? 
We might, could, &c, have been, Might, could, &c, we have been ? 
You might, could, &c, have been, Might, could, &c, you have been? 
They might, could, &c, have been. Might, could, &c, they have been? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c., have loved* Might, could, &c, I have loved ? 
Thou mightst, &c, have loved, Mightst, &c, thou have loved ? 
He might, could, &c, have loved. Might, could, &c, he have loved? 
We might, could, &c., have loved, Might, could, &c, we have loved ? 
You might, could, &c, have loved, Might, could, &c, you have loved ? 
They might, could, &c, have loved. IV^ight, could, &c, they have loved ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, &c, have been loving, Might, &c, I have been loving ? 
Thou mightst — have been loving, Mightst — thou have been loving ? 
He might, &c, have been loving. Might, &c, he have been loving ? 
We might, &c., have been loving, Might, &c, we have been loving ? 
You might, &c, have been loving, Might, &c, you have been loving ? 
They might, &c., have been loving. Might, &c., they have been loving? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I might, &c, have been loved, Might, &c, I have been loved ? 

Thou mightst — have been loved, Mightst, &c, thou have been loved ? 
He might, &c, have been loved. Might, &c, he have been loved ? 
We might, &c, have been loved, Might, &c, we have been loved ? 
You might, &c, have been loved, Might, &c, you have been loved ? 
They might, &c, have been loved. Might, &c, they have been loved ? 

132. Reason has often done that, which might could not 
do, and yet, might may do what reason can not do. 



Prop. 6.] SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 289 

60. The Subjunctive Mood is a Limited, or Finite 
Mood. As its name implies, it is always used in a 
Sub-joined Sentence, to express a condition, supposi- 
tion, contingency, &c. (See p. 101.) 

133. Condition. The act will become a law, unless the 
governor vetoes it, 

134. Supposition. If the length and width be equal, the 
surface is a square. 

135. Contingency. u When slanderers meet, Satan goes to 
dinner." 

136. Doubt. I know not whether the story be true or false; 
but if it be true, it is surprising. 

, 61. In English, the Subjunctive Mood is expressed 
by a Sub-joined Sentence, whose verb is either in the 
Indicative, or in the Potential Mood ; while the con- 
nection of the sentence is shown by a Limiting Con- 
nector ; so that, either the whole sentence, or the con- 
nective and the verb, must be taken, in order to form 
the English Subjunctive Mode. (See p. 267, § 31.) 

a. In dividing the Modes (p. 267, § 32), we spoke of the Subjunctive 
as a Nominal Mode ; meaning that, with a trifling exception, in English, 
the verb has no form or mode of its own to show the Subjunctive Mood. 
This Mood is shown by using a Limiting Connective before a sen- 
tence, whose verb is in the Indicative, or in the Potential; so that, 
while the four Simple or Real, and also the Compound Mood, are 
shown by the form or construction of the verbs themselves, the Sub- 
junctive Mood is shown by the character , or use of the sentence, or even 
by the connective, since this indicates the character, or use of the sen- 
tence (p. 101); hence, in English, we have Subjunctive Sentences in- 
stead of Subjunctive Verbs. 

b. Whenever a Subjunctive is used in those languages, whose verba 
have distinct Subjunctive Forms, the connection of the sentence is al- 
ways shown oy a Limiting Connective, so that nothing is gained by 
having the Subjunctive Form of the verb, since the use of the verb 
may be known by the connective. In this respect, therefore, the Eng- 
lish is the simpler, because it is less encumbered with useless forms. 

62. The Subjunctive Mood is used in all the tenses ; 
and all its tenses are Secondary. 

13 



290 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD — PKESENT TENSE. [Book IV. 

©S. The Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are formed 
by prefixing Limiting Connectives to the Direct Forms 
of the Indicative, and the Potential Moods ; and the 
Tenses, thus formed, are called the Regular Forms of 
the Subjunctive Mood. 

Sixth Suggestion. Here let the student repeat a few tenses of the Indicative 
and Potential Moods, prefixing if, provided, when, or some other word, used as a 
Limiting Connective. {See p. 114.) 

a. In order to form a distinct Subjunctive Mode, it was proposed to 
drop the termination of the second and third persons in the singular ; 
thus, having the same form for the verb in both numbers, which it now 
has in the plural. The attempt proved unsuccessful in the main result, 
but succeeded so far, as to give countenance to those preferring to use 
them in the Present and Imperfect Tenses. The best writers and 
speakers generally follow the Regular Forms, except in the verb To be. 

b. The personal terminations of the second and third persons are 
wholly useless, and foreign to the genius of the English verb. If the 
Person and Number of four parts of each tense may be known without 
them ; or, may be known from the subject, it follows that these also 
might be known by the same means. 

The Subjunctive Mood, or Mode.. 

64. The Present Tense of the Subjunctive Mood, 
formed from the Indicative. 

Regular If I am, If thou art, If he, she, or it is. 

Form. If we are, If ye, or you are, If they are. 

Ancient If I be, If thou be, If he, she, or it be. 

Form. If we be, If ye, or you be, If they be. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 
Eegular. If I love, If thou lovest, If he, she, or it loves. 

If we love, If ye, or you love, If they love. 
Ancient. If I love, If thou love, If he, she, or it love. 

If we love, If ye, or you love, If they love. 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms. 
Regular. If I do love, If thou dost love, If he, she, or it does love. 

If we do love, If ye, or you do love, If they do love. 
Ancient. If I do love, If thou do love, If he, she, or it do love. 

If we do love, If ye, or you do love, If they do love. 



Prop. 6.] PRESENT — IMPERFECT TENSE. 291 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 
Regular. If I am loving, If thou art loving, If he is loving. 

If we are loving, If ye, you are loving, If they are loving. 
Ancient. If I be loving, If thou be loving, If he be loving. 

If we be loving, If ye, you be loving, If they be loving. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Regular and Ancient. 

If I am loved, If thou art loved, If he is loved. 

If we are loved, If ye, or you are loved, If they are loved. 

If I be loved, If thou be loved, If he be loved. 

If we be loved, If ye, or you be loved, If they be loved. 

65. The Present Tense of the Subjunctive Mood, 
formed from the Potential. 

Simple Form, Direct. 

If I may, can, or must be, If we may, can, or must be, 

If thou .mayst, canst, or must be, If ye, or you may, can, or must be, 

If he may, can, or must be. If they may, can, or must be. 

Active Voice, Emphatic Form, Direct. 

If I may, can, or must love, If we may, can, or must love, 

If thou mayst, canst, or must love, If ye, or you may, can, or must love, 

If he may, can, or must love. If they may, can, or must love. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 
If I may, can, or must be loving, If I may, can, or must be loved, 
If thou mayst, canst, or must be — If thou mayst, canst, or must be — 
If he may, can, or must be loving. If he may, can, or must be loved. 
If we may, can, or must be loving, If we may, can, or must be loved, 
If you may, can, or must be loving, If you may, can, or must be loved, 
If they may, can, or must be loving. If they may, can, or must be loved. 
For the Ancient Form, substitute may and can, for mayst and canst. 

6©. The Imperfect, or Past Indefinite, formed from 
the Indicative. 

Simple Forms. 
Reg. If I was, If thou wast, If he, she, or it was. 

If we were, If ye, or you were, If they were. 

Anc. If I were, If thou wert, If he, she, or it were. 

If we were, If ye, or you were, If they were. 

Were, when used subjunctively in a direct form, implies negation; — 



292 SUBJUNCTIVE— IMPERFECT TENSE. [Book IV. 

137. "If it were possible, they would deceive the very 
elect." 

Were, when used in a negative form, affirms ; as — 

138. " If it were not so, I would have told you.' 5 

Active Voice, Simple Porms, Regular and Ancient. 

If I loved, If thou lovedst, If he, she, or it loved. 

If we loved, If ye, or you loved, If they loved. 

If I loved, If thou loved, If he, she, or it loved. 

If we loved, If ye, or you loved, If they loved. 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms, Regular and Ancient. 

If I did love, ' If thou didst love, If he, she, or it did love. 

If we did love, If ye, or you did love, If they did love. 

If I did love, If thou did love, If he, she, or it did love. 

If we did love, If ye, or you did love, If they did love. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Regular and Ancient. 
If I was loving, If thou wast loving, If he was loving. 

If we were loving, If you were loving, If they were loving. 
If I were loving, If thou wert loving, If he were loving. 

If we were loving, If you were loving, If they were loving. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Regular and Ancient. 

If I was loved, If thou wast loved, If he was loved. 

If we were loved, If you were loved, If they were loved. 

If I were loved, If thou wert loved, If he were loved. 

If we were loved, .If you were loved, If they were loved. 

&7. The Imperfect Tense, formed from the Po- 
tential. 

Simple Form, Direct. 

If I might, could, would, &c, be, If we might, could, would, &c, be, 
If thou mightst, couldst, &c., be, If you might, could, &c., be, 
If he might, could, would, &c, be. If they might, could, &c, be. 

For the Ancient Form, substitute might, could, would, and should, for mightst, 
couldst, wouldst, and shouldst. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c, love, If we might, could, would, &c, love, 

If thou mightst, couldst, &c, love, If you might, could, &c, love, 
If he might, could, &c, love. If they might, could, &c, love. 



Prop. 6.] SUBJUNCTIVE — PERFECT TENSE. 293 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c., be loving, If I might, could, &c, be loved, 
If thou mights t, &c., be loving, If thou mightst, &c., be loved, 
If he might, could, &c, be loving. If he might, could, &c, be loved. 
If we might, could, &c, be loving, If we might, could, &c, be loved, 
If you might, could, &c, be loving, If you might, could, &c, be loved, 
If they might, &c, be loving. If they might, could, &c, be loved. 

68. The Perfect, or First Definite Past Tense, 
formed from the Indicative. 

If I have been, If thou hast been, If he, she, or it has been. 

If we have been, If ye, or you have been, If they have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form. 

If I have loved, If thou hast loved, If he, she, or it has loved. 
If we have loved, If you have loved, If they have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice. 

If I have been loving, If I have been loved, 

If thou hast been loving, If thou hast been loved, 

If he, she, or it has been loving. If he, she, or it has been loved. 

If we have been loving, If we have been loved, 

If ye, or you have been loving, If ye, or you have been loved, 

If they have been loving. If they have been loved. 

69. The Perfect Tense, formed from the Potential. 

Simple Form, Direct. 

If I may, can, or must have been, If we may, can, &c., have been, 
If thou mayst, &c., have been, If you may, can, &c., have been, 
If he may, can, &c, have been. If they may, can, &c., have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I may, can, or must have loved, If we may, can, &c., have loved, 
If thou mayst, &c, have loved, If you may, can, &c, have loved, 
If he may, can, &c., have loved. If they may, can, &c., have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 
If I may, &c, have been loving, If I may, &c, have been loved, 
If thou mayst, — have been loving, If thou mayst, &c., have been loved, 
If he may, &c, have been loving. If he may, &c, have been loved. . 
If we may, &c, have been loving, If we may, &c, have been loved, 
If you may, &c, have been loving, If you may, &c, have been loved, 
If they may, &c., have been loving. If they may, &c., have been loved. 



294 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD — PLUPERFECT. [Book IV 

70. The Pluperfect, or Second Definite Past, formed 
from the Indicative. 

Simple Form, Direct. 
If I had been, If thou hadst been, If he, she, or it had been. 

If we had been, If ye, or you had been, If they had been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I had loved, . If we had loved, 

If thou hadst loved, If ye, or you had loved, 

If he, she, or it had loved. If they had loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct 

If I had been loving, If I had been loved, 

If thou hadst been loving, If thou hadst been loved, 

If he, she, or it had been loving. If he, she, or it had been loved. 

If we had been loving, If we had been loved, 

If ye, or you had been loving, If ye, or you had been loved, 

If they had been loving. If they had been loved. 

7 1 . The Pluperfect, or Second Definite Past, formed 
from the Potential. 

Simple Form, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c., have been, If we might, could, &c, have been, 
If thou mightst, &c, have been, If you might, could, &c, have been, 
If he might, could, &c, have been. If they might, could — have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c, have loved, If we might, could, &c., have loved, 
If thou mightst, &c, have loved, If you might, could, &c, have loved, 
If he might, could, &c., have loved. If they might, could — have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct 

If I might, &c, have been loving, If I might, &c, have been loved, 
If thou mightst have been loving, If thou mightst — have been loved, 
If he might, &c, have been loving. If he might, &c, have been loved. 
If we might, &c, have been loving, If we might, &c, have been loved, 
If you might — have been loving, If you might, &c, have been loved, 
If they might — have been loving. If they might, &c, have been loved. 

The Limiting Connective is sometimes understood. , 
140. Be thou a ghost, or goblin, I'll speak to thee. If thou 
be a ghost — 



ruop. 6.] FIRST FUTURE — SECOND FUTURE. 295 

141. Knew he this truth, enough for man to know; — 

72. The First Future, or Future Indefinite, formed 
from the Indicative. 

Simple Form, Direct 

If I shall, or will be, If we shall, or will be, 

If thou shalt, or wilt be, If ye, or you shall, or will be, 

If he, she, or it shall, or will be. If they shall, or will be. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct 

If I shall, or will love, If we shall, or will love, 

If thou shalt, or wilt love, If ye, or you shall, or will love, 

If he, she, or it shall, or will love. If they shall, or will love. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct, 

If I shall, or will be loving, If I shall, or will be loved, 

If thou shalt, or wilt be loving, If thou shalt, or wilt be loved, 

If he shall, or will be loving. If he, she, or it shall — be loved. 

If we shall, or will be loving, If we shall, or will be loved, 

If ye, or you shall — be loving, If ye, or you shall, or will be loved, 

If they shall, or will be loving. If they shall, or will be loved. 

73. The Second Future, or Future Definite, formed 
from the Indicative. 

Simple Form, Direct. 

If I shall, or will have been, If we shall, or will have been, 

If thou shalt, or wilt have been, If ye, or you shall — have been, 
If he, she, or it shall — have been. If they shall, or will have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I shall, or will have loved, If we shall, or will have loved, 

If thou shalt, or wilt have loved, If ye, or you shall — have loved, 
If he, she, or it shall — have loved. If they shall, or will have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

If I shall, or will have been loving, If I shall, or will have been loved, 
If thou shalt have been loving, If thou shalt have been loved, 
If he — shall have been loving. If he — shall have been loved. 
If we shall have been loving, If we shall have been loved, 

If ye, or you shall have been loving, If ye, or you shall have been loved, 
If they shall have been loving. If they shall have been loved. 



296 



CONJUGATION OF TO SEE. 



[Book IV. 



74. An Outline of the Conjugation of the Transi- 
tive Verb, To see, Irregular. Arranged according to 
Tense. 

In the following, the Singular is given ; let the pupils supply the PluraL 
Principal Parts, To see, I saw, Seeing, Seen, 



PRESENT TENSE. 



INFINITIYE MOOD. To see, 
PAETICIPIAL MOOD. Seeing, 



INDICATIVE. 



Simp, j 
Emp. J 



Direct. 
Inter. 
Direct. 
Inter. 



I see, 
Seel? 
I do see, 
Do I see? 



Periphrastic. 
Act. j 
Pas. \ 



Direct. I am seeing, 

Inter. Am I seeing ? 

Direct. I am seen, 

Inter. Am I seen ? 



To be seeing, 
Being seen. 



Thou seest. 
Seest thou ? 
Thou dost see, 
Dost thou see ? 



Thou art seeing. 
Art thou seeing ? 
Thou art seen, 
Art thou seen ? 



To be seen. 



He sees, &c 
Sees he ? &c. 
He does see, &e. 
Does he see ? &c. 



He is seeing. 
Is he seeing ? 
He is seen. 
Is he seen? 



IMPERATIVE. 



Periphrastic. 



POTENTIAL. 

«TTin» i Direct. I may 

Sl]UP - 1 Inter. May I 




See thou, or see you, or see. 

Do thou see, or do you see, or do see. 

Be thou seeing, or be you seeing, or be seeing. 

Do thou be seeing, or do you be seeing, or do be seeing. 

Be thou seen, or be you seen, or be seen. 

Do thou be seen, or do be seen, or be seen. 



see, 
see? 



Thou mayst see, 
Mayst thou see V 



He may see. 
May he see ? 



Periphrastic. 



Act. 
Pas. 



[ Direct. 
[ Inter. 
\ Direct. 
[ Inter. 



I may be seeing, Thou mayst be seeing, He may be seeing. 

May I be seeing ? Mayst thou be seeing ? May he be seeing? 

I may be seen, Thou mayst be seen, He may be seen. 

May I be seen ? Mayst thou be seen ? May he be seen ? 



SUBJUNCTIVE, from the Indicative. 



*H2& 



If I see, 
If I see, 

■ LMP - \Anc. If I do see, 

Periphrastic. 
A __ j Reg. If I am seeing, 
■ fl - 0T ' "j Anc. If I be seeing, 
p j Reg. If I am seen, 
^ AS * 1 Anc. If I be seen, 



If thou seest, 
If thou see, 
If thou dost see, 
If thou do see, 



If thou art seeing, 
If thou be seeing, 
If thou art seen, 
If thou be seen, 



If he sees. 
If he see. 
If he does see. 
If he do see. 

If he is seeing. 
If he be seeing. 
If he is seen. 
If he be seen. 



SUBJUNCTIVE, from the Potential. 

« j Reg. If I may see, If thou mayst see, 

DIMP. -j An( ,^ Jf J may g^ J f ^ou ma y g e6j 

Periphrastic, 
a rT j Reg. If I may be seeing, If thou mayst be seeing, 
A i Anc. If I may be seeing, If thou may be seeing, 

[Reg. If I may be seen, If thou mayst be seen, 
Anc If I may be seen, If thou may be seen, 



Pas. 



If he may see. 
If he may see. 

If he may be seeing. 
If he may be seeing; 
If he may be seen. 
If he may be seen. 



Prop. 6.] SYNOPSIS OP TO TEACH. 297 

75. Synopsis of To teach ., Transitive and Irregular. 
(See p. 279, Fifth Suggestion.) 

Principal Parts. To teach, I taught, — teaching, — taught. 
Present Tense, Active and Passive. 

Infinitive. To teach, To be teaching, To be taught. 

Participle. — teaching, — being taught. 
First Person, Singular. 

Indicative. I teach. Teach I? I do teach. Do I teach? I am 
teaching. Am I teaching? I am taught. Am I taught? Imp. — 
Potential. I may, can, or must teach. May, can, or must I teach ? I 
may, can, or must be teaching. May, can, or must I be teaching ? I 
may, can, or must be taught. May, can, or must I be taught ? Sub- 
junctive. If I teach. If I do teach. If I am teaching. If I am 
taught. If I may teach. If I may be teaching. If I may be taught. 

Second Person, Singular. 

Indicative. Thou teachest, or you teach. Teachest thou, or teach 
you ? Thou dost teach, or you do teach. Dost thou teach, or do you 
teach ? Thou art teaching, or you are teaching. Art thou teaching, or 
are you teaching? Thou art taught, or you are taught. Art thou 
taught, or are you taught? Imperative. Teach thou, or teach you, 
or teach. Do thou teach, or do you teach, or do teach. Be thou teach- 
ing, or be you teaching, or be teaching. Do thou be teaching, or do 
you be teaching, or do be teaching. Be thou taught, or be you taught, 
or be taught. Do thou be taught, or do you be taught, or do be taught. 
Potential. Thou mayst teach. Mayst thou teach ? Thou mayst be 
teaching. Mayst thou be teaching ? Thou mayst be taught. Mayst 
thou be taught? Subjunctive. If thou teachest, or if thou, or you 
teach. If thou dost teach, or if thou, or you do teach. If thou art, or 
you are teaching, or if thou, or you be teaching. If thou art, or you 
are taught, or if thou, or you be taught. If thou mayst teach, or if 
thou, or you may teach. If thou mayst be teaching, or if thou, or you 
may be teaching. If thou mayst be taught, or if thou, or you may be 
taught. 

TJiird Person, Singular. 

Indicative. He teaches school. Teaches he school? He does 
teach school. Does he teach school ? He is teaching school. Is he 
teaching school ? School is taught by him. Is school taught by him ? 
Potential. He may teach school. May he teach school? He may 
be teaching school. May he be teaching school? School may be 
taught by him. May school be taught by him ? Subjunctive. If he 
teaches school, or if he teach school. If he does teach school, or if he 

13* 



298 NEGATIVE CONJUGATION. - [Book IV. 

do teach school. If he is teaching school, or if he be teaching school. 
If school is taught by him, or if school be taught by him. If he may, 
can, or must teach school. If he may, can, or must be teaching school. 
If school may, can, or must be taught by him. 

76. To Conjugate a verb Negatively, place the 
negative adverb not, after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary. In the Infinitive, and Participial Moods, 
place the negative before the verb. 

Infinitive. Not to love. Not to be loving. Not to be loved. Not 
to have loved. Not to have been loving. Not to have been loved. 
Participial. Not loving. Not being loved. Not having been loved. 
Indicative. I love not. Love I not? I do not love. Do I not love? 
I am not loving. Am I not loving 1 I am not loved. Am I not loved ? 
Imperative. Love not thou. Do not thou love. Be not thou loving. 
Do thou not be loving. Love not. Do not love. Potential. I may 
not love. May not I love ? I may not be loving. May not I be loving ? 
I may not be loved. May not I be loved? Subjunctive. Same as 
the Indicative, and Potential, by prefixing, a Limiting Connective. 

77 . Distinction of the Subjunctive. 

That the distinctions of the Subjunctive Mood are in the Connectors, 
and not in the Yerbs themselves, may be seen by inspecting the follow- 
ing examples — 

1. I called him to see the books. Infinitive. 

2. He, seeing the books, was pleased. Participial. 

3. He sees the books. Indicative. 

4. See the books. Imperative. 

5. He may see the books. Potential. 

6. If he sees the books. Subjunctive, from the Indicative. 

7. If he mal] see the books. Subjunctive, from the Potential. 

8. If he see the books. '* Subjunctive Form" Ancient. 

In the sixth and seventh examples, the condition is shown by the connector, 
ifi and not by any peculiar form of the Verb, or its auxiliaries, as in the other ex- 
amples. "Remove the Connector, and these Examples become the third and 
fifth. Hence, we might do very well in English without using a Subjunctive, 
by noticing, that, in the Rhetorical Analysis (p. 114, §23) we divided Connectors 
into the Extending and the Limiting, and showed" that the Limiting Connectors 
join sentences, which modify the Primary Sentences. Following out that idea, 
we might parse Limiting Connectors as joining & Subjunctive Sentence, whose 
Verb is in the Indicative, or in the Potential Mode. This would enable us to omit 
the " Subjunctive Forms." But these •can give little, or no trouble to the pupil al- 
ready familiar with the Indicative and the Potential Modes, and will be of use 
when studying those Languages which have a real Subjunctive Mode. 



Prop. 6.] VERB IN CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 299 

Ri>le Seventh. When the Clauses of a Compound Con- 
traded Sentence are united by an Extending Connective, and 
the same affirmation is made concerning each subject, the 
Verb, which is expressed, takes the Plural Number. (See 
p. 120, § 5, and p. 230, Rule Second.) 

142. John and James ride. John rides and James rides. 

Ride is plural, because it is the affirmer, expressed, in a Compound Contracted 
Sentence, in both of whose clauses the same affirmation is made. (p. 10T, § 7.) 

143. " To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the 
opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight of our 
Creator, are three things so very different, as rarely to 
coincide." 

Are is plural, because it is the only affirmer, expressed, of the three sentential 
nouns, to be icise, &c. (See p. 205, § 13.) And these sentential nouns are subjects 
in similar propositions. That is the same affirmation is made concerning each. 

144. Diligent industry, and not mean saving, produces 
honorable competence. 

Produces is singular, although the connective is an Extender, because the af- 
firmations differ. The example uncontracted is, Diligent industry does produce 
honorable competence, and mean saving does not produce honorable competence. 
In the former, the affirmation asserts ; in the latter, it denies. 

145. Not her talents, but her beauty attracts attention. 

146. Wealth, honor, and happiness, forsake the indolent. 

147. John, or James rides dairy. 

Exception. Rule Seventh is not applied to clauses, connected to ex- 
press a comparison, or an exception ; nor to verbs after Distributive 
Adjectives ; nor to nouns in apposition. 

148. Comparison. His health, as well as his fortune, re- 
quires care. 

149. Exception. No hand, save thine, has done it. 

150. Distributive.. Every man, and every woman re- 
quires it. 

151. Apposition. This poet, statesman, and general, was 
born in obscurity. 

a. When the subjects differ in person, the verb agrees with the First 
in preference to the Second ; and with the Second in preference to the 
ThnM. That is, the speaker styles himself and others, we ; or second 
and third persons, you, and the verb takes its person accordingly. 



800 WITH WHAT SUBJECT. [BOOK IV. 

152. Thou, and not he, art the proper person. 

b. When the contracted Clauses are united by Limiting Connectors, 
and the Subjects differ in person, the verb must agree with the subject 
next to it, and be understood with the rest. 

153. I, or you are destined to do it. You, or I am des- 
tined to do it. 

Exception. If the second subject be used parenthetically, or be in ap- 
position, the verb agrees with the first subject. 

154. One example (or ten) does not disprove it. 

155. A palisade, or rows of sharp stakes, defends the 

building. 

156. Whether to own my faults, or stoutly to deny them, 
was for sometime a matter of debate in my own mind. 

c. In statements imputing blame to persons, the speaker may men- 
tion himself first ; in all others, he should mention himself last. 

d. A Collective Noun, meaning the group, collection, or number 
named, must be considered as singular; while a Collective Noun, 
meaning the individuals in the" group, must be plural. (See p. 211, c.) 

157. The army was defeated with great slaughter. 

158. The committee mere unanimous in their opinions. 

159. The jury was charged very carefully by the judge, 
and yet they could not agree. 

e. An Intransitive Verb between two subjects, X YX, agrees with 
the one before it ; unless the sentence be transposed. 

160. Two and two are four. Four is equal to twice two. 

That is, the number four equals twice two. 

161. I am dust and ashes. Thou art the man. It is they. 

162. Transposed. "The wages of sin is death." Who 
art thou ? _ 

7 8 . Some verbs are used in the Third Person Singu- 
lar only, these are called Monopersonal, or Impersonal 
Verbs ; as, It rains; It behooves; &c. ; meaning a 
general state, or condition of things. Some consider 
the use of it as the personator of a Sentential Noun, a 
sign of the monopersonal ; as — 

163. It is convenient for me to do it. 



Pbop. 6.] FORMULA FOR VERBS. 301 

79. General Formula for Analyzing Verbs. 



Logically 

i' c fVi a j Second Part, Act, or ) T+ J has, or may have \ a •o £tt . a t~~ m 

IS Hie j state of Existence. \ li \ can not have \^ Receiver. 



Rhetorically. 

f Subject — the{]™^ 

It is USed aS the Affirmer Of the \ First Object the Eeceiver. 

(Second Object-] S C e ^ roducer . 



Therefore, Grammatically, — [it] is a Verb. 

Principal Parts. 
Pres. Inf. Imp. Ind. Pres. Part. P,erf. Part. 



It is from the Verb 



To- 
To 



-ed, 



-iner, 



-ed. Regular. 
. Irregular. 



It is -j Tb^sitiye, in tte{ g*^ J. Voioc , because it's] g^/ }is its Subject. 
( Intransitive. Rule First, (p. 254.) 



f Present 
Imperfect 

It is in the J Sa** 



Pluperfect 
First Future 
Second Future 



Simple, 



< sees™, ^^fcr 



i?wZe 7%zr<Z, p. 264. 



It has- 



;tlie 



j — Person, 
\ — Number, 



because its subject is in the Nom. Case and -j _ ^^mber 

no Person, or Number \ ^cause ?J S Sl ^ject is in the Objective Case. 

' i because its subject is used m another sentence. 

Rule Third, p. 264. 



Therefore, it must be in { ^Sh™ 6 ' } RuU *®% P- 26T " 8 - 



It is in 

the.. 



Infinitive, because the Sentence is Dependent j objective 6 ' } 268^0 



Participial, because its subject is a Noun in another sentence, (p. 272, a.) 

[p. 277, §18.) 
Imperative, because it commands, entreats, &c. (p. 283, § 51.) 



Indicative, because it is used to narrate, or to interrogate, (p. 277, § 13.J 



Potential^ because it expresses possibility, &c. (p. 284, § 55.) 
„ Subjunctive, because it expresses condition, &c. (p. 290, § 63.) 



Its Synopsis in this tense is - 



-, Ac. HERE ! 



Seventh Suggestion. In analyzing verbs, let the student tell whether the verb 
is an auxiliary, or a principal verb ; and, also, if it be variable, defective, or redun* 
dant. When the verb has Person and Number, let the student tell whether, or 
not, the verb is modified to show its Person and Number. 



302 ADVERBS — INTERROGATIVE. [Book IV. 



PROPOSITION SEVENTH. 

1. Adverbs are the adjuncts of words, not used as 
nouns. (See p. 110, § 16, and p. 199, § 2.) 

a. In the Rhetorical Analysis, adjectives and adverbs are included 
in adjuncts; hence, their grammatical distinction, that adjuncts of 
nouns are called Adjectives, while adjuncts of words, which are not used 
as nouns, are called Adverbs. Of course, this is not intended to include 
parts of compound words ; as, one, in the compound word one hundred, 
(See p. 250, c.) 

b. Some grammarians assert, that, "Adverbs may sometimes qualify 
nouns. " The expression itself is plainly the result of that confusion 
of thought, which does not distinguish between the office of a word, and 
the word itself. (See p. 200.) 

2. Adverbs may generally be regarded as contrac- 
tions ^f two, or more Rhetorical parts ; usually that 
of a relator and the second object, (p. 118, Sixth.) 

1. All orders thankfully received, and promptly supplied. 

All orders received in a thankful manner, and supplied with promptness. 

a. Adverbs, like pronouns, may be regarded as a convenient, rather 
than a necessary part of speech. We could communicate our thoughts 
without either of them; but, by their use, we are enabled to express 
ourselves more directly, and more euphoniously. 

3. When an Adverb is used in asking a question, it 
is said to be used Interrogatively ; when used in an- 
swering a question, it is used Responsively. . 

2. How does he behave ? Ans. Properly. 

In what manner does he behave ? Answer. He behaves in a proper manner. 

How is used Interrogatively ; Properly is used Responsively to how. This exam- 
ple comes under Compound Contractions ; the question, and the answer both be- 
ing the same, except in the word properly, the answer is contracted to a single 
word. (See p. 124, § 11.) Nearly every adverb may be so used. 

Analysis; How is in the Second Part, used as an adjunct of the Affirmer, does 
behave ; therefore, it is an Adverb, used interrogatively. It means, in what manner. 
Properly is a part of the Act ; used as, an adjunct of does behave, understood ; there- 
fore, it is an Adverb. It is responsive to how, in the preceding sentence ; meaning, 
in a proper manner. 



Trop. 7.] CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 303 

a. When a Responsive asserts the truth of a proposition, 
it is said to be used affirmatively ; or to be an Adverb of Af- 
firmation ; as — 

3. Are you here ? Yes, verily, we are. 

b. When a Responsive denies a proposition, it is said to be 
used negatively, or to be an Adverb of Negation ; as — 

4. Hamlet. Looked he pale, or red ? Horatio. Nay, very 
pale. 

a. Adverbs, not used Kesponsively, are also affirmative, or negative, 
when they assert, or deny propositions ; in this case, however, they 
seem to have a responsive use. 

5. " Verily I say unto you, No prophet is accepted in his 
•own country." 

6. He, which testifieth these things, saith, Surely I come 
quickly, Amen. 

7. I pray thee do not mock me. Did you not speak to it ? 

8. Then saw you not his face ? Oh ! yes, my lord, he wore 
his beaver up. 

4. According to signification, Adverbs are divided 
into five classes, or kinds ; Adverbs of manner, time, 
order, place, and degree. Some of each class being 
used as Interrogatives, and others as Responsives. 

This does not include adverbs of affirmation, or negation. 

a. Adverbs of manner show how, or why an act occurs, or a property 
exists ; and hence, include those, which express cause, doubt, mode, or 
quality. 

9. Interrogative. How did you find the book ? By seek- 
ing carefully. 

Analysis; How is found in the Second Part; used as an adjunct of did find; 
therefore, it is an Adverb of Manner, used Interrogatively. Carefully is also an 
Adverb of Manner. 

10. Interrogative. Why sports the tender lamb ? Because 
he fears no evil now. 

11. Doubt. Perhaps the ship will come to-morrow. It 
may, possibly, be here no^v. 

Substitute perchance, peradventure, haply, &c, for perhaps, or possibly, and then 
analyze them. 



304 ADVERBS OF MODE — TIME. [Book IV. 

12. Mode. Thus have mankind lived and died. In this 
manner, &c. 

Thus is a part of the Act ; used as an adjunct of have lived to tell in what man* 
ner ; therefore, it is an Adverb of Manner. 

13. So conduct thyself that thou live not like a bankrupt 
in spirits. 

b. Adverbs of time show when, or how often an act occurs, or exists ; 
as, present, past, future, relative, absolute, and occasional time. 

14. Interrogative. When will we recite ? Now ; presently; 
to-morrow. 

At what time will we recite ? At this time you will recite. 

15. How often have you recited? Daily; weekly; sel- 
dom, &c. 

1 6. Time present. It rains now, and yet the sun shines. 

17. Time past. As I have already said; this happened 
yesterday ; long ago ; recently ; lately ; anciently, &c. 

18. Time future. We shall know soon; to-morrow; ere- 
long ; by-and-by, &e. 

19. Time relative. He came early ; late; seasonably, <fec 

20. James will tell us the news, when he comes. 

When will James tell us the news ? Answer. When he comes. In this example, 
the whole sentence, When he comes, is used as the adjunct of tell ; while when is 

Y 

used as the adjunct of comes. The formula is, X———-Z. Translation — X, 

James ; Y, will tell us, when he comes ; Z, the news. But F= Y+ X Y. That is, 
Z, will tell [to] us ; -}-, when ; X, he ; Y, comes. (See p. 86, ex. 48.) 

Some prefer to make when a Connective Adverb, connecting the two sentences 
and qualifying both verbs at the same time. This resolves the example into, 
James will tell us the news at that time, at which time James comes. This construc- 
tion would be correct, if the expression were, When James comes, then he will 
tell us the news; but when then is not used, we prefer the analysis given by the 
formula. (See p. 118, ex. 18, 19.) 

21. Time absolute. It will remain here for ever ; perpetu- 
ally ; continually ; eternally, &c. 

22. Time occasional. Ralph is here often; seldom; occa- 
sionally ; daily ; weekly, &c. 

c. Adverbs of order show the relation of events as to place, or time, 
and is signified by first, secondly, thirdly, &c, meaning in the first place, 
or the first time, &c. 

d. Adverbs of place show where, whence, or whither the act occurs, or 
exists. (Seep. 118, Sixth.) 



Prop. 7.] ADVERBS — PLACE — DEGREE. 805 

23. Interrrogative. Where is my book ? Arts. Here* 

In what place is my book ? In this place is yotir book. 

24. Whence comes t thou ; is it far hence ? 

From ichat place comest thou ; is it far from this place ? 

25. Whither shall we flee ? Answer. Thither. 

To what place shall we flee ? To this place ye shall flee. 

26. In which place. You will find it here ; there; every- 
where ; above, &c. 

27. From which place. Whence we came. Thence we 
came. Hence we came. 

From which place we came. From that place we came. From this place we 
came. 

Before these Adverbs of place, the preposition should not be used. 
Whence we came ; not, From whence. 

28. To which place. Whither thou goest, I will go. 

e. Adverbs of degree show how much is intended. 

29. Inter. How much owest thou? Ans. Much ; little, &c. 

30. Equality. We have enough ; as much as we desire. 

31. Abundance. The dress is very rich; exceedingly; ex- 
travagantly, &c. 

32. The fruit is fidlyriipe ; entirely; completely ; perfectly. 

f. When an Adverb indicates the relation of one sentence to an- 
other, it is called a Conjunctive Adverb. (See ex. 20.) 

33. Eemain here until I return. 

5. Adverbs of quality, and also of quantity indefi- 
nite are compared the same as adjectives, (p. 238.) 

34. I came near, you came nearer, but he came nearest. 

35. John acts wisely, Jane, more wisely, Ruth, most wisely. 

36. This is badly done, this is worse, and this is the worst. 

The principle, by which Adjuncts are compared, has reference to dif- 
ferent degrees of the property, which the adjunct names ; hence, the 
comparisons of the Adjective and of the Adverb are the same in pur- 
pose and in form. 

a. Some Adverbs, like Adjectives, are Irregular in comparison ; as, 

Well, better, best. Badly, or ill, worse, worst. 

Little, less, least. Much, more, most. 

Far, farther, farthest. Forth, further, furthest. 



306 ADVERBS — INTENSIFIED — NEGATIONS. [Book IV. 

b. Adverbs are often intensified, or strengthened, by joining another 
Adverb to them ; as — 

37. The carriage was very easily mended, but the work 
was very clumsily done. 

38. Then rudely I seized it ; too rudely, alas ! 

39. The truth of this proposition is most fully shown. 

c. When no is used as an Adverb, it must be used as an adjunct 
of an adjective in the comparative degree. No should never be used 
as an adjunct of a verb. 

40. No sooner do they meet than they fight. 

41. Tell me whether you will, or not. That is, or will not 

Tell me whether you will, or no. This is wrong. 

d. No definite rules for placing the Adverb can be given. It should 
precede an adjective ; and be placed after the first auxiliary of a verb. 

e. Only one negative should be used to express a negation. 

42. I could do so no more. I could not do so any more. 

I could not do so no more.. I could not do so not any more. Vulgar. 

f. The repetition of a negative adverb strengthens the negation. 

43. I will never, never, never forget you. 

g. Two negations in the same clause destroy each other and render 
the meaning affirmative. 

44. I did not do nothing. Then you did do something. 

45. Nor did they not perceive their evil plight. 

h. Never is composed of not ever ; and hence, is directly the opposite 
of ever in signification, and should not be confounded with it. 

46. I have seldom, or never failed to perceive it. 

I have seldom, or ever failed to perceive it. Faulty. 

47. Listen not to the voice of the charmer, charm he never 
so wisely. 

This should be, charm he ever so wisely. 

48. Take her up tenderly. Lift her with care ; 
Fashioned so slenderly, young, and so fair ! 

49. Welcome the stranger with kindly affection ; 
Hopefully, truthfully, not with dejection. 

50. Ten censure wrong for one, who writes amiss ; 
A fool might once himself alone expose ; 
Now one, in verse, makes many more in prose. 



Prop. 8.] CONJUNCTIONS, OR CONNECTIVES. 307 



PROPOSITION EIGHTH. 

1. A Conjunction is used to join the clauses of a 
Compound Sentence, and sometimes to join words. 

A few examples occur, in which Conjunctions seem to connect 
words only, but even these may be resolved into contracted sentences ; 
so that the Conjunction would seem to join sentences only. (p. 114.) 

3. Conjunctions are of tiuo kinds ; the Extending, 
and the Limiting. (See p. 114.) 

3. Extending- Connectives join clauses of the same 
class, or degree, and thus extend, or continue the nar- 
ration. (See p. 100, § 1.) 

1. The king has houses, and land, and riches. 

Analysis ; And is used to join two clauses of a compound contracted sentence, 
both of which are in the same degree ; hence, it is an Extending Conjunction. 

2. I seized the opportunity, as my last chance, and jumped 
into the boat. 

3. I am a debtor both to the Greeks and to the Barbarians. 

4. He called for me to go with him. I saw that they ran. 

5. I must either sink, or swim. You can neither sink, nor 
swim, because you are not in the water. 

6. I would rather have five dollars than four dollars. 

In Spenser's Faery Queen, we find then used instead of than. I would rather 
have five dollars, then four dollars. 

7. Let not him, that putteth on his armor, boast himself, 
as he that putteth it off. 

4. Limiting Connectives join clauses of different 
classes, or degrees, when one qualifies, or restricts the 
meaning of the other. (See p. 101, § 4.) 

8. May my right hand forget its cunning, if I forget thee ! 

Analysis; If joins the Secondary Clause, I forget thee, to the Primary, as a 
condition, or contingency ; therefore, it is a Limiting Connective. 

9. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 
10. The vessel is unsafe, unless the winds be calm. 



308 CONJUNCTIONS — ADVERBIAL. [Book IV. 

a. Most Conjunctive Adverbs, or Adverbial Connectives belong to 
the class of Limiting Connectors. (See p. 305, f) 

11. It is a most bitter thing to be poor, when it snows. 

When it snows qualifies, or restricts the meaning of the previous clause, and 
the connection is shown by when, which is an adjunct of snows ; therefore, it is a 
Limiting Adverbial Connective, or a Limiting Conjunctive Adverb. 

12. Her dimpled cheek burns, while musing on sleigh-ride 
and ball. 

13. This house has been built since we were here. 

b. Conjunctions are usually divided into the Copulative, and the Dis* 
junctive. The Copulative comprising such Connectives, as " denote an. 
addition, cause, or supposition ;" the Disjunctive, such as "denote op- 
position of meaning." Beside being objectionable as names [a dis- 
junctive Conjunction !], the classification does not become of any practi- 
cal use. The grammarians call the following words, when used as con- 
junctions, Copulatives; i( and, as, both, because, for, if, that;" the 
following are called Disjunctives ; " or, nor, either, neither, than, though, 
although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, notwithstanding." We 
think it would be a difficult task to find an " opposition of meaning" in 
all of the clauses, usually joined by these connectives. 

5. Sometimes Conjunctions are used inceptively. 

14. That he neither writes nor reads is very surprising. 

15. For to me to live is Christ, and to die is gain. 

16. That mind is not matter, is certain, (p. 227, ex. 22.) 

6. When Conjunctions refer to each other, they are 
said to be used Cor relatively^ or as Correspondent 
Conjunctions. (See p. 242, &.) 

17. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

Analysis ;. Though is used to join the secondary clause, he slay me, to £he prima- 
ry, I will trust in him, and has a relation to the connector yet, with which it is used 
Corr -datively ; though being the Antecedent, and yet the Consequent. Yet is used in* 
ceptively in regard to the primary clause, and as the Subsequent Correlative of 
though. 

18. I am as tall as he [is], but not so heavy. 

19. As smoke [is] to the eyes, and as vinegar to the teeth, 
so is the sluggard to them, that send him. 

20. Either remain contentedly, or depart at once. 

21. You excel neither in attendance, nor in attention. 

a. Connectives are used correlatively with Adverbs ; and also with 
Adjectives. 



Prof. 8.] CORRELATIVE — INTERPOSITIVE — POST. 309 

22. No man is so fortunate as always to be successful. 

23. I am so fortunate as to possess one constant friend. 

24. The car moved so swiftly, that we could not distinguish 
objects near us. 

25. Such virtues, as these, are pleasing to Heaven. Vir- 
tues, such as these, are pleasing to Heaven. 

26. The color was such, that it could not be matched. 

b. After the Connectives, else, other, and rather, the latter term of a 
comparison should be introduced by than. 

27. Better lose all, rather than lose a good conscience. 

28. Take the right course, rather than the pleasant one. 

c. Sometimes conjunctions seem to connect words in apposition. 
This is due, probably, to a contraction. 

29. On this occasion, Mr. Smith officiated as chairman. 

d. Two, or even more, Conjunctions sometimes come together. As 
a general rule, they should be avoided. 

30. I will teach this subject as well as I can. 

31. And, if thou shalt fall, all will fall with thee. 

e. Conjunctions, which are usually placed between the clauses, aro 
called Interpositive Conjunctions ; those, which are placed after the first, 
second, or third word of the second clause, are called Postpositive Con- 
junctions. 

32. Interpositive, I have finished my task, and yours also. 

33. Postpositive. I bade him follow ; he, however, did not 
obey. 

f. Sometimes sentences are so contracted as to give the connectives 
the appearance of being used relatively. A little care will readily de- 
tect the true use of the connective, and supply the ellipses. 

34. I have as much money, as I need. 

I have as much money, as the money is, which I need. 

35. Select such books, as please you. 

Select such books, as those books are, which please you. 

g. The effect of Polysyndeton is to retard the enunciation, and to 
give the hearer a better opportunity to notice each particular thing 
mentioned ; while Asyndeton hurries the mind over the list and prevents 
such particular attention to each. 

36. John, and James, and William, and Sarah were present. 



310 EXCLAMATIONS, OR INTERJECTIONS. [Book IV. 

37. John, James, William, and Sarah were present. 

h. The connectors are sometimes understood ; when this occurs, they 
should be supplied in analyzing. 

38. Thou warnst me, [that] I have done amiss. 

39. Gold, silver, rank, honor; all, all are too poor to buy 
, exemption from the debt of Nature. 

i. If the student has understood the distinction between Extending 
and Limiting Connectives, he will now, if not before, be able to per- 
ceive the difference between the Subjunctive and the other Modes ; or, 
rather that the English has no Subjunctive. (See p. 289, a, b.) 



PROPOSITION NINTH. 

1 . Exclamations , or Interjections are words, or sen- 
tences, used to show emotion, or passion, (p. 115.) 

When the Exclamation is prompted by a real feeling, emotion, or 
passion, it is a very effective part of speech ; but, when feigned, or too 
often used, it loses its force, and becomes tiresome. 

2. Exclamations are divided into classes according 
to the emotions, or passions, which are expressed by 
them. 

1. Hark! they whisper, angels say, "Sister Spirit! come 
away ! " s 

2. Halloo, here! Is any body awake within ! 

3. Whoa, boys ! Steady, boys ! gently now, gently ! 

4. If they shall say, Lo, here ! or, Lo, there ! 

5. Ha, ha, ha ; he, he, he. A good joke ! Capital, capital ! 

a. The Exclamative is usually analyzed by simply stating 
the kind of emotion, &c, which it expresses ; but, if a verb, 
or other part of speech be used, it should be classified accord- 
ing to the preceding principles. 

6. 'T was strange ! 'T was passing strange! 'Twas piti- 
ful ! 'T was wondrous pitiful ! 

For farther practice, see exercises in the Fifth Book. 



Prop. 10.] CLASSIFICATION BY USE. 311 



PROPOSITION TENTH. 

I. The same word may be used in several different 
offices ; but its classification must, in every instance, 
depend on its use. (See p. 103.) 

This proposition is a repetition of what has already been stated ; but 
its importance seems to justify us in calling special attention to it ; the 
more so, because our elementary works on language contain so many 
expressions directly calculated to beget the idea, that certain words are, 
in themselves, certain parts of speech. So far, we "have endeavored not 
only to avoid such expressions, but to guard the learner against the in- 
ocption of an idea so erroneous. To enforce the importance of classi- 
fying 'each word according to its use, the following familiar sentences 
are given. 

The superiors indicate the classes, to which the words belong, in the following 
order ; 1, a noun ; 2, a preposition ; 3, a pronoun ; 4, an adjective ; 5, a verb ; 6, 
an adverb ; 7, a conjunction ; 8, an exclamation. (See p. 142, c.) 

1. Painters paint buildings with paint, which they carry in 
paint-pots, and apply with paintbrushes. (See p. 103.) 

2. The dock-masters dock the wages of the laborers, who 
come to work on the dock after -a certain time. 

3. Mr. Wells informs me, that all the wells in his vicinity 
are well filled with water ; and that all his friends are well. 

4. In the last example, with 1 is a preposition ; what is it 
in this example ? 

5. Did you find with 1 in the list of prepositions ? 

Analysis; With is the third part; used as the first object of did find; there- 
fore, it is a noun, &c. 

6. But is often used as a preposition ; what is it here ? 

7. I 1 , thou, he, she, and it are often used as pronouns. 1 

8. Do not thee 5 and thou me ; I am no friend of thine. 

9. Parse did find 1 in the analysis given above, and also 
as it is used here. 

10. In the last example, here 1 is an adverb. 

11. In the tenth example, adverb is a common noun. 

12. "And is a Copulative Conjunction." 



312 SECONDARY CLAUSES. [Book IV. 

13. The woman said, that 7 that 4 that, 1 that 4 that man 
parsed, was not that 4 that, 1 that that lady asked him to parse. 

14. In the last example, him is a simple pronoun; what is 
it in this, and what is its case ? 

15. Henry leaves the leaves of his fruit-trees lying in the 
walk. 

1 6. Henry, in the last example, is a proper noun ; what is 
it in this ? 

17. What a queer thing parsing is ! If I call with a prepo- 
sition, I make it a noun ; if I call it a pronoun, it becomes a 
common noun ; if I say, " them is a pronoun, third, plural, 
and objective," I make them sl common noun, neuter, third, 
singular, and in the nominative ! 



PROPOSITION ELEVENTH. 

1 . The Secondary Clauses of Compound Sentences 
are sometimes named according to the grammatical 
character of the words, by which the relations of these 
Secondary clauses are shown. (See p. 101.) 

First. The Vocative Clause, which is introduced by the name of the 
person, or object addressed. 

1. "0, Genius of Art, fill us with the inspiration of a still 
higher, and a more spiritual beauty !" 

Second. The Appositional Clause, which contains a noun in apposi- 
tion with a noun in the other clause. 

2. Pythagoras, an ancient philosopher, made many dis- 
coveries in geometry and astronomy. 

3. He was employed as Secretary of the Board of Trade. 

Third. The Casual Clause, which tells the cause, or object, for 
which an action is done. 

4. Congress assembled to devise the means for raising a 
revenue. 

Fourth. The Participial Clause, which is introduced by a participle. 

5. The Russians, discovering our approach, fled hastily. 



Prop. 12.] PHRASES. 313 

6. She, loved by all, loved all in return. 

Fifth. The Hypothetical, or Subjunctive Clause, which is introduced 
by a Limiting Connective, and hence, is in the Subjunctive. 

7. If I be Hodge, I have lost a horse ; but, if I be not 
Hodge, I have found a good halter. 

8. When Spring comes, the trees take their clothing from 
their trunks. 

Sixth. The Relative Clause, which is introduced by a designating 
adjective, used relatively. 

9. This is an occasion, which is long to be remembered by 
all. now present 

10. Ye stars, which are the poetry of heaven! 

a. There are certain Phrases, which are called clauses by some 
writers. For the true distinction between a clause, and a phrase, see 
the Twelfth Proposition, a. 



PROPOSITION TWELFTH. 

1 . Certain parts of simple sentences are sometimes 
called Phrases, a Greek word, signifying sayings. 

a. Some writers call these parts Clauses ; but this term is more properly applied 
to the Simple Sentences, forming parts of a Compound Sentence; while Phrase is 
applied to the inferior parts of a Simple Sentence. In both cases, the subdivis- 
ions are made on the same principle. 

2. PhYases are divided and named according to the 
words, by which their Logical and Rhetorical Charac- 
ters are shown. 

First. The Prepositional Phrase, which includes the preposition and 
its second object. 

1. The vine hangs on the tree, which is in the garden. 

2. The next instant, all was hushed. 

3. Some love labor ; others, on the contrary, abhor it. 

4. The planet, Venus, may be known by its brightness, and 
by its locality. 

5. On the other hand, this proposal did not suit both 
parties. 

14 



814 GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. [Book IV. 

Second. The Adverbial Phrase, which is introduced by an adverb. 

6. The skies were transparently blue* 

7. They live away over the hills. 

8. We were at the place punctually. 

a. Sometimes these are parsed as Adverbial Phrases. When the stu- 
dent is familiar with the use of each word in the Phrase, this manner of 
disposing of these constructions will answer very well. 

Third. The Adjective Phrase, which is introduced by an adjective. 
9. Conscious of rectitude, he maintains his principles. 
10. Last of all, the woman died also. 

b. Phrase was formerly applied to a part of a sentence, used without 
the rest; as, in duty bound; truly yours; and to such parts of sentences, 
and sometimes even to entire sentences, as were in common use ; as, 
so to speak; penny wise and pound foolish. When these are very com- 
mon, we call them, Cant Phrases ; as, " Practical Knowledge." 



PROPOSITION THIETEENTH. 

1. Besides the Figures of Rhetoric (p. 169) , there 
is another kind, called Grammatical Figures, or Fig- 
ures of Orthography, Figures of Etymology, and Fig- 
ures of Syntax. 

2. Figures of Orthography come from changing the 
spelling of words. 

I. Ar-cha'-ism, or spelling a word according to its old or obsolete 
form, or according to a form, which is rapidly going oat of use or be- 
coming obsolescent ; as, many of the Irregular Verbs. 

1. "Well! it is now puhlique, and you wil stand for your 
priviledges wee know ; to read, and censure. Do so, but buy 
it first. That doth best commend a Booke, the stationer 
saies."— Old Preface, 1623. 

II. Mi-me'-sis, or imitating the mode of pronouncing in the spelling. 
(See Imitation, p. 185.) 

2. Arrah ! now, yer Honor ! and isn't it meself will be 
after spaking to my ould man anent it ? 



Prop. 13.] FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY — SYNTAX. 315 

Mimesis is also applied to such words, as imitate ecrtain sounds, or 
motions, which they name ; as, shrilly ivhoop, snarl, glide. 

3. The sharp crack of the rifle, the twang of the bow- 
string, and the whoop of the savage are heard no more. 

3. Figures of Etymology arise from changing the 
usual forms of words. 

Etymology signifies the science of the origin of words, 

I. A-phcer'-e-sis, or taking away the initial letter of words ; as, 'gainst, 
'neath, for against, beneath. 

II. Syn'-co-pe, or dropping middle letters; as, adm'r, for adminis- 
trator. 

III. A-poc'-o-pe, or dropping final letters ; as, tho y , for though. 

IV. Pros'-the-sis, or prefixing letters ; as, adown, bestrown, for down, 
strown. 

V. Tme'-sis, or inserting a word between the parts of a compound ; 
as, On which side soever. 

VI. Par-a-go'-ge, or annexing letters ; as, deary, firstly, for dear, 
first. 

VII. Di-ar'-e-sis, or separating two vowels ; as, cooperate, (p. 143.) 
VIII. Syn-c&*'-e-sis, or bringing two syllables into one; as, mayst, 

couldst, for mayest, couldest. 

4. Figures of Syntax, or deviations from common 
modes of using words in sentences. 

Syntax signifies putting together, or construction. 

I. El-lip' -sis, or contraction of sentences, as shown in the Rhetorical 
Analysis ; hence, a contracted sentence is said to be Elliptical, or to be 
an Elliptical Expression. ( See p. 1 1 7. ) 

II. Ple'-o-nasm, or the introduction of superfluous words. These 
are sometimes called Tautological Expressions. They may be used in 
explaining, and also under the influence of excitement; hence, most 
Explanations are Pleonasms. (See p. 310.) 

4. He, that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

5. There shall not be left one stone upon another, that shall 
not be thrown down. 

III. Hy-per'-ba-ton, or a transposition of words. (See p. 128, § 8.) 

6. Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I 
unto you. 

7. From the centre all round to the sea, 
I'm lord of the fowl and the brute. 



316 FIGURES OF SYNTAX — CAPITALS. [Book IV. 

IV. Syl-lep'-sis, or the agreement between words, when used in a 
figurative sense, different from their literal use. (p. 230, Rule Third.) 

8. While Evening draws her crimson curtain round. 

9. Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and 
preached Christ unto them. 

V. En-aV-la-ge, is the use of one form, or modification of a word in- 
stead of another belonging to the same word ; as, when we is used for 
/; you for thou. 

It also includes several instances, which should be condemned as un- 
grammatical, and would be, if they were not found in certain writings. 
It is also used as a poetic license. 

10. "I done it;" meaning, I did it. A very common 
error. 

11. "What is writ is writ f for, What is written is written. 

12. "Speak, tell me quick " for, Speak, tell me quickly. 

13. "Slow, through the churchyard path we saw him borne." 

14. " Heaven did a recompense as largely send :" — 

By poetic license, slow is used for slowly ,- largely, for large. 



PROPOSITION FOURTEENTH. 

,1. The English is printed in three kinds of letters, 
or types; the Roman, the Italic, and the ©lb ©ng^ 
Hb\). Each of these is divided into two kinds; 
CAPITALS, and Small Letters. 

Rule First. Names of Deity, and words used to designate, or to 
personate Deity, should begin with capitals ; as, God, Jehovah, the Al- 
mighty, the All - Wise, the Supreme Being, Heaven, &c. 

1. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. 

When heaven signifies a place it becomes a common noun. 

Ktjle Second. Proper names, and titles of all kinds should begin 
with Capitals ; as, George Washington, General Putnam, Marquis de La 
Fayette ; the Constitution of the United States, the History of the Union ; 
the Central Park; the Democratic Republican Party, the Whigs, and the 
Tories ; the Presbyterians ; the State of New York, Ohio; the Americans ; 
the Swiss Cantons. 



Prop. 14.] CAPITAL LETTERS. 317 

Rule Third. First words of every period, and of every line, or' 
verse in poetry should begin with capitals ; as — 

2. The attack of ridicule is a covert one. We scorn to 
confute what we profess to contemn. Sometimes the railer 
affects to be in earnest ; and to be defending that, which he 
attacks. 

3. How bitter must thy waters be, 

O Death ! How hard a thing, ah me ! 
It is to die ! 

Rule Fourth. Words, derived from proper names ; /, used as a 
pronoun, 0. as an interjection, and the names of personified objects, 
should begin with capitals ; as — 

4. The Newtonian system of philosophy fully proves that 
the Pythagorean was true ; although the latter was, for so 
long a time, supposed to be disproved by the Aristotelian and 
the Ptolemaic, 

5. "'Tis the last pang," he calmly said — 

" To me, Death ! thou hast no dread — 
Saviour, I come !" 

Rule Fifth. The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, 
or of a direct quotation, should begin with capitals ; as — 

6. What is no in the following example? No lamb was 
e'er so mild as he. 

7. Mr. Jones, being called, appeared and said ; — " Mr. 
Speaker, I did not intend to make a speech," &c. 

8. And he said, " Is not the life more than meat ?" 

a. If the quotation be introduced by a connective, the first letter 
need not be a capital ; as — 

9. Solomon says, that " it is a pleasant thing for the eyes 
to behold the sun." 

Rule Sixth. Words, which name the subject of a discourse, or 
to which we attach special importance, may begin with capitals ; as — 

10. The Pules for Capital Letters might be greatly ex- 
tended ; but after all, in this matter, much must be left to the 
taste of the writer ; and, beside, in many respects, usage is 
not uniform with itself. 



818 EXERCISES IN CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION. [Book IV. 

Examples to he corrected and explained by the pupils. 

1. having wonce- started The giblets was determined that no thing 
should Stop them in there carear until they had ran there ful Coarse 
evere Taylor, evere Shoemaker everea Kotehmaker And everigh dan- 
sing Master in Ye \ye old form for the] sitty ware Enlisting in thare ser 
vices. 

Pupil. "Having begins the period; hence, it should begin with a capital. 
Wonce is intended for once, from which it is formed by prefixing w, or by Prostfi&< 
sis," &c. 

2. my name is norval on the grampian hills my father feeds his flock 
a rural swain and i his Only son 

3. Heard Ye. Those Loud Contending Waves That Shook ce- 
cropia. 

4. For the strengthe off ye hills We bless the our god 

5. Our love to god ward, is not to be compared with his to us ward. 

6. The persons inside the coach were Mr Miller a clergyman his son 
a lawyer Mr Angelo a foreigner his lady and a little child 

This may be made into several different sentences both as to the number, pro- 
fessions, and the relations of those in the coach, by varying the punctuation. 

7. 'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 
kind natures Bounties, o'er the globe diffused, — 

8. The aerial pencil forms the scene anew. 

9. Withouten trump was proclamation made. 

10. The law i gave to nature him forbids. 

11. Behold I lay in Zion a stumbling-stone and rock of offence. 

12. Let us instant go o'erturn his palaces. 

13. Every good man's sons is blest by what his father has done. 

14. I done what you told me with them things. You haint though! 

15. This book is Neither yours or his ? 

16. I am more pleased with the baconian then with*the aristotelian 
system of philosophy. Althou I learnt both. 

17. " Yees speaks hinglish as well as hi do" . 

18. What clatter, rattle, whizzing, buzzing, screaking, banging 

19. This is the thing I told him of which he did not know what to 
do with such a dilemma he had got into 

20. We have apples and potatoes and turnips and onions or beans 
or else peas 

21. I saw the moon leading its starry host in the sky. 

22. The sun in its meridian glory illumes the day. 

23. Each one of the jury receive their pay. 

24. Many a man send letters home when absent. 

25. Mathematics are the science of quantity. 

26. Reflect on every word, you see, read, hear, or speak; its birth, 
derivation, and history. This will insure you a liberal education. 



BOOK FIFTH. 
COMPOSITION. 



PROPOSITION FIRST. 

1 . Composition is the Science and Art of express- 
ing our thoughts and feelings correctly. 

a. So far as language is concerned, Composition is a synthetic pro- 
cess, by which we construct sentences, paragraphs, chapters, and vol- 
umes ; either for the purpose of communication with our fellow-beings, 
or for our own improvement. In the Logical, Rhetorical, and Gram- 
matical Analyses, we have attempted to exhibit the nature and con- 
stitution of human knowledge, and of language, and also the relations, 
which they have to, as well as the influence, which they exert upon each 
other. In the Fifth Book, we shall endeavor to discuss certain proper- 
ties, and principles, which belong almost exclusively to Composition as 
a synthetic process, and to which, of course, we could barely allude in 
the previous analyses. But these properties and principles, in the syn- 
thetic course, become of primary importance ; because, in composing, 
we are obliged to use the knowledge, previously acquired, both for ar- 
ranging our thoughts properly, and for expressing them correctly. la 
the analytic stage, the student, for the greater part, is a recipient, a con- 
sumer ; but as a composer, he becomes a producer, and a contributor 
to the general stock. Now, in doing this, he is required to use lan- 
guage in a manner altogether different from that, in which he has previ- 
ously used it, and hence, obtains new views of its uses, and capabili- 
ties, and so gains that higher power, by which the human race is so 
wonderfully distinguished — the Use of Language. Nor should any 
suppose that exercises in both kinds of this twofold process are not 
equally necessary. By taking a machine in pieces, we may be enabled 
to comprehend the relation and fitness of its parts ; but it is only by 
attempting its construction, that we learn to select the proper, and the 
best materials, to fit each part for its peculiar use, and to give proper 
adaptation to the whole, so that it shall best fulfil its design. 



320 QUALIFICATIONS FOR COMPOSING. [Book V. 

2. In order to compose successfully, three things 
are necessary on the part of the writer, or speaker ; 
first , Previous preparation ; second, A willingness to 
work for success ; and third, The possession of the or- 
dinary attributes of humanity. 

First. Previous Preparation. The student should have definite 
ideas concerning knowledge, its different varieties, its modes of acquisi- 
tion, its reproduction ; and should be familiar with that part of the nom- 
enclature of mental science usually employed in connection with knowl- 
edge ; and lastly, should be familiar with the Logical, Rhetorical, and 
Grammatical Analyses of Sentential Language. 

Second. A Willingness to icork for Success. The student, who 
would become expert in expressing thought and feeling, must not sup- 
pose that this power can be developed without the exercise of all his 
faculties. He must have great faith in labor, as all the successful have 
had. He must feel, that "perseverance conquers all," and, that " la- 
bor is worship/' His task will become easier the more his labor is di- 
vided in a proper ratio between the hands, the head, and the heart. 

Third. The Possession of ike ordinary Attributes of Humanity ; noth- 
ing more, nothing less. He must have sensations and perceptions of ob- 
jects similar to those, which others have of the same objects. He must 
remember and imagine as others remember and imagine ; that is, these 
acts must be of the same kind ; they may differ in degree. He must 
reason and judge as a human being ; and lastly, he must have human 
feelings. He must "Rejoice with them, that do rejoice, and weep with 
them, that weep " 

If any one possess these three essentials, let that one speak and 
write. "Practice makes perfect." Always observing the modes, in 
which good writers and speakers express themselves ; not with the dis- 
position to adopt unhesitatingly all, that may be found therein, but "to 
mark, learn, and inwardly digest," so that it shall become the food for 
thought and farther growth. "Reading makes a full man; conference 
makes a ready man ; writing, an exact man." 

But above all ; let every student remember and preserve his mental, 
as carefully as he should his physical individuality. As every human 
being can be distinguished from all the rest, and yet each exceedingly 
resembles all the others ; so, each composer [writer, or speaker] is en- 
titled to have and to preserve his own individualities, or peculiarities of 
thought, and modes of expressing it, which are known as his style ; 
only let them not be violations of any essential law of language, or of 
any long and well-established usage,- which is in harmony with these 
essential laws. Be neither rash innovators, nor servile imitators. 



Prop, l.j GENIUS — TASTE. 321 

The three Essentials for Composing are — 
First. To have something which is to be told. 
Second. To know how to tell it. 
Third. To stop when it has been told. 

3. We shall use the term Genius to name that de- 
velopment and discipline of the mental powers, which 
enable their possessor to think correctly in regard to a 
given subject ; to draw new truths from those already 
known — in short, to invent or originate. 

a. Some mean by Genius a natural and unaccountable mental de- 
velopment, which enables its possessor to do, without application, that 
which, if accomplished at all by others, must be the result of labor. 
If there be such geniuses, they are manifestly exceptions to the great 
mass of mankind, and hence, not entitled to consideration in a work 
designed expressly for the generality, rather than for the exceptions. 
We venture to predict, that the number of geniuses, in our sense of the 
term, will increase in direct proportion as the constitution of the human 
mind, and the laws of its development come to be understood, and re- 
garded in teaching, as teaching itself comes to be regarded as a means 
of development, instead of being esteemed an end of labor. (See ex- 
tract, " Patience and Labor.") 

I 

4L. The mental act, which distinguishes the proper 
from the improper, the natural from the unnatural, the 
true, the fitting, and the agreeable, from the untrue, 
the unfitting, and the disagreeable, is called Taste. 

a. Taste is here used figuratively, and includes ; first, the state of 
mental development ; and, second, the harmonious action of the mental 
powers. It includes all that we have said concerning mental develop- 
ment in the First Book. (See Book I., prop. iii. and iv.) Taste is one 
of those terms, which it is difficult to define, and yet can be correctly 
used and understood by all. 

5. The natural order of things, and the general 
opinions of those best qualified to examine, and to judge, 
constitute what is called, the Standard of Taste. 

a. In the last definition, we refer to the Standard of Taste in Liter- 
ary matters ; not to what is called the Standard of Taste, or u the Fash 
ions" in dress, equipage, &c. 



822 THE STANDARD OF TASTE. [Book V. 

■% 

6. One, who can judge according to the Standard 
of Taste, is said to have Good Taste ; one, who judges 
incorrectly, to have Bad Taste ; and one, who can not 
judge at all, to be without Taste in that matter. 

a. In regard to the most of those natural objects, by which we are 
surrounded, it is probable that the majority of mankind have no taste ; 
and hence, are excluded from that, which was designed as a primary 
source of gratification and instruction, and still higher, an incentive to 
study, and development. Who is responsible for this perversion ? , 

b. From what has been said in this, and also, in the First Book, we 
perceive that Taste depends on cultivation, or development. Who, 
that has applied himself to any pursuit ; as, music, drawing, &c, has 
not found his capacity to discriminate, and to enjoy new beauties 
gradually becoming more and more developed until distinctions were 
made almost unconsciously, which at first could only be made with dif- 
ficulty, if made at all 1 

7. The chief Characteristics of Good Taste are Del- 
icacy and Correctness. 

a. Delicacy of Taste is the ability to distinguish and appreciate all 
the finer, or more minute excellences of an object, or of a composition. 

b. Correctness of Taste is the ability to distinguish between what 
is true, and what is false; what is appropriate and befitting, and 
what is inappropriate, and unbefitting; between real and false orna- 
mentation. 

c. Delicacy of Taste mainly depends on the natural temperament, 
or feeling; Correctness on the cultivation of the mental powers, or de- 
velopment. The former is more the gift of nature ; the latter, the result 
of art. They are so intimately connected, that one can scarcely exist 
without the other. 

8. The mental ability or capacity to appreciate the 
works and opinions of others is called Talent. 

a. Genius invents, taste discovers, and talent appreciates ; hence, 
every individual has access to the knowledge of all the others. The 
talented may understand and enjoy the works of the ingenious, and the 
criticisms of the tasteful ; while the ingenious and the tasteful are incited 
to new efforts by the hope of winning the appreciation of the talented. 
" The next thing to possessing genius ourselves is the ability [talent] to 
appreciate it in others." 



Prop. 1.] CAUSES OF SUBLIME EMOTIONS. 323 

b. It must not, for an instant, be supposed, that one of these attri- 
butes can be possessed without some goodly portions of the others. A 
man of genius, must also possess taste and talent ; and, in like manner, 
a man of taste must possess, to some good degree, the originative and 
the appreciative. According to which of these is most conspicuous, its 
possessor is said to be a genius, or tasteful, or talented. 

9. The objects, with which Genius, Taste, and Tal- 
ent are mainly concerned, are commonly known as the 
" Works of Nature" and the " Works of Art" 

a. The first, and greatest. source of pleasure, is in the Sub- 
limity or Grandeur of objects. It elevates and expands the 
soul, filling it with a degree of wonder and astonishment, 
which can not be expressed. This emotion is of a serious 
nature, and, at its height, awful and solemn even to a severity, 
which serves to distinguish it from the livelier emotions pro- 
duced by beautiful objects. 

10. Natural Causes of Sublime emotions. 

First. Vastness produces sublime emotions. Vast space, especially 
if it be in height, or in depth. A boundless plain maybe a grand object, 
but it does not impress us as a high mountain, or an awful precipice. 
The boundless extent of the firmament, joined to its great height, ren- 
ders it exceedingly grand ; and so also, is the vast extent of the ocean, 
in its endless swell, and in the vast force of its waters. Remove all 
bounds from space, and it becomes sublime ; hence, endless numbers, 
eternal duration, and infinite space, create emotions, which are sublimely 
pleasing. 

Second. Greatness is a source of the sublime. Great noises; as, 
thunder, the roar of artillery, or of a mighty cataract. " I heard the 
voice of a great multitude, as the sound of many waters, and of mighty 
thunderings, saying, Allelujah." An engagement between two mighty 
armies combines all the elements of grandeur, vastness, noise, great 
strength and power, and hence, "has always been considered one of 
the most sublime spectacles, that can be presented to the eye, or pic- 
tured to the imagination." 

Third. Ideas of a solemn, or awful kind, even those bordering on 
the terrible ; such as, darkness, solitude, silence, &c. " He maketh dark- 
ness his pavilion ; he dwelleth in the thick cloud." 

Fourth. Obscurity also contributes to sublimity. "It is one thing 
to make an idea clear, and another to make it affect the imagination, 



824 SUBLIMITY IN WRITING. [Book V. 

and the imagination may be, and often is strongly affected by objects, 
of which we have no clear conception/ 7 "In thoughts from the visions 
of the night, when deep sleep falleth upon men, fear came upon me, 
and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a spirit passed 
before my face ; the hair of my flesh stood up ; it stood still, but I could 
not discern the form thereof." 

Fifth. Deeds of virtue, heroism, magnanimity, self-denial ; in short, 
any deed arising from great and noble feelings. These give rise to 
what are called the Sentimental, or Morally Sublime Emotions. The finest 
examples of this are to be found in the records of Christianity, Our 
Saviour f the Christian Martyrs; men and women sealing their faith 
with their lives. Next to these, we place those, who have struggled for 
freedom, and have preferred death to ignominious servitude ; and those, 
who have labored to sustain great social reforms. 

First Suggestion. When reviewing, it would be well to read Blair's Lectures 
on this subject. They are too extended for our space to be given in full, and their 
utility would be materially injured by an abridgment. 

1 1 . Elements of Sublimity in Writing- , or Com- 
position-. 

First. The foundation of the Sublime in writing must always be in 
the nature of the object described. ■ Unless it be such an object as, if 
presented to our eyes, or in reality, would raise sublime emotions, the 
description can not become sublime, no matter what other good qual- 
ities it may possess. 

Second. The subject must be presented so as to give us a Sublime 
impression of it. The language must be strong, concise, and simple. 
(See p. 169.) Very seldom, if ever, can figurative language be used 
without destroying the sublimity of the composition, which must not be 
confounded with the sublime style of writing. "God said, I am, that I 
am." This is a sublime idea. The language is simple, plain, and 
concise ; but let it be expressed in the sublime style, and it fails to create 
sublime emotions. " I am the same being, that I have been, and words 
fail to describe what a majestic and glorious being, I now am." 

Third. The narrator must be filled with those Sublime emotions, 
which are caused by his subject, and which he would excite in the 
hearer, or reader. No one can produce a sublime feeling in an- 
other, unless he first has that feeling in himself; mere words can not 
excite it. 

The less improved states of society are commonly supposed to be 
the most favorable for producing emotions of sublimity, as men's, minds 
are then more exercised with objects, which occasion admiration, and 



Prop. 1.] EMOTIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 325 

astonishment. The imagination is aroused, and actions, and passions 
are less restrained ; hence, imagination is more active, thought is bolder, 
and language is simpler. 

" How was it in that earlier time, 
While nature yet was young ; Earth's wandering race, 
Exploring realms of solitude sublime, 
Not as we see, beheld her face. 
Art had not changed those mighty scenes, 
Which met their wondering eyes. Unpeopled kingdoms lay 
Before them, silent and vast, but not as in decay ; 
And the bright Day-star, from his burning throne, 
Shone o'er a thousand shores, untrodden, voiceless, lone." 

Of «all writings', the Sacred Scriptures afford the highest instances of 
the sublime. This arises from the individual characters, and the nature 
of the subjects discussed. Deity, Angels, Evil Spirits ; eternity, 
heaven, hell ; each has all the elements -of sublimity, which we have 
enumerated above. "In the beginning, God created the heaven and 
the earth." Again ; "Then the earth shook and trembled ; the founda- 
tions also of the hills were moved ; because he was wroth. He bowed 
the heavens, and came down, and darkness was under his feet; and he 
did ride upon a Cherub, and did fly; yea, he did fly upon the wings of 
the wind. He made darkness his secret place; his pavilion round 
about him were dark waters, and thick clouds of the sky." Examples 
of the sublime are scattered in profusion throughout the Bible; but 
above all, is that noblest example of Moral Sublimity that has ever been 
recorded, "Father, forgive them /" 

No writer is continuously sublime. There will be occasions when 
the subject loses its interest, or the narrator fails to be incited by it ; or, 
by a wrong selection of words, fails to arouse the proper emotion. In- 
deed, it is unnatural to expect that the state of mental excitement, on 
which the sublime depends, should be abiding. In mind, as in matter, 
action and reaction are equal, and it is only natural to suppose that the 
mind, after having been aroused by a sublime emotion, should tend to 
its opposite state of depression with the greater force. 

b. The second source of pleasure is in the emotions excited 
by what is beautiful. This is next in degree to that arising 
from sublimity. It produces livelier emotions in the mind, 
than those caused by the sublime, and extends to a greater 
variety of objects, which differ very greatly from each other 
both in degree and in quality. Hence, no word in the language 
is used in a more vague sense than beauty. It is applied to 



326 NATURAL CAUSES OF THE [Book V. 

almost every object, that pleases the eye, or the ear ; to a 
great number of the graces of composition ; to many disposi- 
tions of the mind ; nay, to several objects of merely abstract 
science. We speak of a beautiful tree, flower, house, gar- 
den, evening, drive, sunset ; of a beautiful character ; and 
of a beautiful theory of mathematics. The best theory for 
this is, that a great many objects are pleasing, not because 
they all possess the same property, but because there are 
many ways, through which these pleasing emotions may be 
excited in the mind, and these, having similar effects, receive 
the same, name, which is also given by a species of meton- 
ymy, to the objects causing these emotions. » 

12. Natural Causes of the Emotions of the Beau- 
tiful. 

First. Color is a source of Beauty. This depends, to a certain ex- 
tent on the structure of the eye, by which, in different persons, some 
colors are rendered more agreeable than others, (p. 18.) Incidental 
Association has its influence also in regard to colors. Green is asso- 
ciated with rural scenes ; blue, with the serenity of the sky ; white, with 
purity ; black, with death. Kenned tastes select delicate and harmoni- 
ous colors ; uncultivated tastes are pleased with the more glaring and 
those, which are more strongly contrasted. (See p. 53.) 

Second. Figure is a source of Beauty. The simplest forms of fig- 
ures are the geometrical. These please us by their regularity and sym- 
metry. It has been suggested that the regular are pleasing because they 
seem to be combined with utility. That is, these figures are seen in 
buildings, tools, canals, and such other works, as are constructed for 
business purposes. But simple figures do not give us so much pleas- 
ure, as those, which are more complex and varied, and hence, in the 
works of nature we do not find straight lines ; on the contrary, it has 
been asserted that, " Nature abhors straight lines, as much as she does a 
vacuum." Every object in nature assists in diversifying the outlines of 
the landscape. The variety in the forms of plants, and of foliage, all 
serve to diversify and beautify, and yet each is a departure from straight 
lines. Hogarth, in his Analysis of Beauty, asserts that figures, 
bounded by curved lines, are more beautiful than those bounded by 
right lines and angles. He selects two lines, on which he asserts the 
beauty of figures principally depends. The one is a wave line, now 
called Hogarth' 's Line of Beauty ; the other is a wave line twined around 
a cylindrical body, which he called ihe Line of Grace. 



Prop. I.J EMOTIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL. 327 

Third. Motion is a source of beauty. Motion to be pleasing must 
be gentle; if it be swift, or strong; as, lightning, or a torrent, it be- 
comes sublime. The flight of birds, the gambolling of lambs, the mo- 
tions of children in play, and the graceful, upward curling of smoke, 
are beautiful. Motions in straight lines and in angles give rise to fig- 
ures bounded by these lines and angles, and hence, arc less beautiful 
than motions in curved, lines, which seem to generate figures bounded 
by curves. The motions, necessary for business, are mostly in direct 
lines ; but those of pleasure or amusement are mostly in curves, which 
are likewise the lines used in ornamental movements. Persons, who 
move their limbs in right lines, are said to be awkward in their motions ; 
those, who move them in curved lines, are said to be graceful. 

Fourth. Design or art is a source of beauty. The fitness of a plant, 
an animal, or even of a machine, for some peculiar purpose, or end ex- 
cites pleasant emotions ; as, when we consider the fitness of each part 
of a plant to perform its allotted task ; as, of the root to gather moisture, 
the stem to distribute it; the leaves to assist in assimilating; and the 
flowers to reproduce the plant. In this case we are struck with the fit- 
ness of the parts, but when we examine a piece of skilful mechanism, 
we are more apt to admire the art or skill shown in its construction, as 
the evidence of human ingenuity; for, exhibitions of mind affects us 
more powerfully than those of matter. Our sense of the adaptation or 
fitness of objects is always awakened by a natural association, which 
leads us to seek, the end or design, and to examine the propriety of the 
parts in relation to this end or design. Objects, having this propriety 
of parts, will always seem to have some beauty ; those, in which it is 
not perceptible, will be ugly or deformed. 

Fifth. The PiGturesque is also a source of those pleasurable emo- 
tions, which we call beautiful. By Picturesque, we mean those objects, 
which are irregular in form ; as, the ruins of buildings, precipices, wild 
natural scenery, and such objects as present rough and jagged outlines. 
These serve by contrast to render regular outlines more gratifying, and 
thus to enhance our enjoyment of the beautiful. 

Sixth. Moral excellence and refined sentiments are sources of the 
beautiful. We have the sentimental, or morally beautiful in the same 
manner as we have the sentimental, or morally sublime. Emotions of 
moral beauty are awakened within us by the contemplation of good 
deeds ; as, in exhibitions of honesty, or fair dealing, in which the gov- 
erning motive is clearly seen to spring from a desire to do what is right. 
An example of this is a debtor, who, having been legally discharged 
from all his liabilities, afterward voluntarily pays the remainder of his 
debts. So, when one having possession of money belonging to another, 
who does not know about it, voluntarily restores it; especially if he be 
poor and needy. 



828 BEAUTY IN COMPOSITION. [Book V. 

Benevolence is a source of moral beauty also. The good Samaritan 
deserves blessings, not simply for the comforts bestowed on a single 
sufferer, but also for that pleasure, which the beautiful narration of his 
benevolence has ever since given. 

The beauty of the human face is perhaps of the most complex kind, 
and, therefore, presents the most perfect idea of the beautiful. It com- 
bines all of the elements mentioned; as, color, figure, motion, adapta- 
tion, intelligence, benevolence, virtue, &c. Hence, in order to be per- 
fectly beautiful, one must not only possess a fine complexion, and hand- 
some features, but must be intelligent, good, and virtuous in disposition. 
Without intelligence and virtue, the face can be pretty, but it never can 
be beautiful in the true sense of the term. Hence, also, every one will 
endeavor to cultivate pure, truthful, and virtuous feelings; unless so 
depraved as to be insensible to the disgrace of presenting to the view 
of others a countenance, which tells the meanness of its owner's soul. 

13. The Source of Beauty in Writing or Compo- 
sition. 

Writing or composition may be said to be beautiful either 
because the ideas, suggested by it, are in themselves pleasing, 
or because the manner in which the ideas are presented, or 
the style pleases. For beauty, like sublimity, may consist 
both in the matter and in the manner of a discourse. 

By the beauties of composition are especially meant those emotions 
of the beautiful, which are caused by the ideas presented. If the ideas 
of the objects suggested by the narration, are so well presented, that they 
affect us as the objects themselves "would affect us, the narration is said 
to be beautiful, or to contain beautiful ideas. If it be a train of ab- 
stract reasoning, clearly and logically presented, or an abstract idea, or 
even a supposition, which pleasurably affects us, it is called a beautiful 
thought. 

T\ r e spoke of the less-cultivated state of society, as more favorable 
to the development of sublimity in composition. On the other hand the 
more cultivated the state of society becomes, the more favorable is it to 
the development of the beautiful in composition. So that, while the 
number of writers and orators, who gain reputations for the sublime in 
composition may be decreasing, the number of those, who excel in the 
beautiful increases. 

c. A third source of pleasure is in Novelty. The novelty 
or newness of natural objects excites our curiosity, and thus 
leads us to examine, or study an unknown object. 



Prop. I] MELODY — HARMONY — WIT — HUMOR. 829 

This is especially active in the minds of children, and if properly 
used, is the natural means of eliciting the attention, and thus, easily 
conveying instruction. The benefit of novelty is in the fact, that by it 
the mind is incited to give attention to an object without regard to the 
merits of the object itself, and thus, a dry and uninteresting matter may 
receive so much attention, as will render it interesting and insure its 
subsequent study even after its novelty ceases to attract. 

d. A fourth source of pleasurable emotions is found in 
melody and harmony. fr Melody is a pleasing succession of 
sounds, such as may be produced by a single voice, or by a 
flute. Harmony is the agreement, or concord of sounds ; as, 
in the different parts sustained, by different voices, or by dif- 
ferent instruments, at the same time. Music is called sublime, 
or beautiful, according as it excites these emotions. Another 
peculiarity of harmony and melody is, that they may be 
made to accompany, and to enhance the effects of emotions 
produced by other means. Examples of this may be seen in 
military parades, and in theatrical representations. Melody 
and harmony are to be regarded in arranging our thoughts, 
in the forms of expression, and in the words. 

e. A fifth source of pleasing emotions is found in wit, and 
humor. Wit is the term applied to ludicrous thoughts, and 
to thoughts containing some sudden, or unexpected turn or 
comparison. 

The lowest species of wit is the pun., or play upon words. Lord 
Chesterfield said, that "one, who could be guilty of a pun, should be 
expelled from good society." We beg leave to differ from his lordship. 
In our humble opinion, he meant to make the punishment too severe 
for one, who only meant to make a pun. 

/. Humor is a continuous flow of pleasing ideas. It is not 
so sparkling and brilliant as wit, nor so serious as ordinary 
narration. 

Different Kinds of Wit and Humor. 

a. A seeming resemblance from the double meaning of a word. 

1. Beneath this stone my wife doth lie, 
She's now at rest, and so am I. 



330 WIT AND HUMOR — PATHOS. [Book V. 

2. His death, which happened in his berth, 
At forty-odd befell ; 

They went and told the sexton, 

And the sexton tolled the bell. — Hood. 

b. A seeming contrast in words, called a Verbal Antithesis, (p. 179.) 

3. When Nelson fought his battle in the Sound, it was the 
result alone, that decided whether he was to kiss a hand at 
court, or a rod at a court-martial. m 

4. Because he was not, as he should be, perfecto ipse ; but 
because he was, as he should not be, perfectly tipse. 

c. A seeming opposition originating in the same cause. 

5. Chimneys have smoked, that never smoked before, 
And we have dined, where we shall dine no more. 

d. A substitution of words in a familiar piece, which is thus made 
ludicrous. This is called Parody. 

6. I knew by the smoke, that so greasefully curled 
Around the black chimney-tops that a cook-shop was near, 
And I said, " If good victuals can be found in the world, 
The man, that is hungry might seek for them here." 

e. A second kind of wit, and of a higher grade than the play on 
words, is that, which exists in the thought. It consists of ludicrous 
images, resemblances, and contrasts. 

7. A drunkard is one, who falls down, and then holds on to 
keep from falling up again. 

8. Dealer. One of these stoves will save one half of the fuel. 
Buyer. Then I'll take two of them, and so save the whole. 

f. Causes and effects having no relation, fancifully joined. 

9. An Irishman, seeing a person .shoot a hawk from the 
top of a high tree, said, " He might have saved his powder 
and shot, for the fall would have killed the bird." 

Seventh. Pathos, or the pathetic is a source of gratification. 

The pathetic is a mournful pleasure, in which all like to indulge ; and 
hence, those narrations, which make us weep, are sought as eagerly, as 
those, which make us mirthful. Pathos, like wit, is an appeal to a 
species of emotions, lower than those excited by sublimity. 



Pkop. 2.] IDIOMS — DIALECT. 331 

10. My mother ! when I learned that thou wast dead, 
Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed ? 
Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son — 
Wretch even then, life's journey just begun ? 
Perhaps thou gavest me, though unfelt, a kiss ; 
Perhaps a tear, if souls can weep in bliss. — Cowper. 



PROPOSITION SECOND. 

1 . In every language, certain expressions are found 
peculiar to the language in which they are used ; these 
are called Idioms, from a Greek word signifying pe- 
culiar. 

Thus, we have English Idioms, French Idioms, Latin Idioms, Greek 
Idioms, &c. The English salutation is, "How do you do?" The French, 
"How do you carry yourself?" The Spanish and Italian, "How do you 
stand ?" So, if an American should say to his friend, How do you carry 
yourself? he would use a French Idiom ; &c. 

The student of Latin is usually required to transpose, or construe the Latin 
words so that they shall be in the order required for translation. This is wrong ; 
since, by this means, he fails entirely to perceive the idiom of the Latin. A bet- 
ter method is to require him to produce a sentence in English with words, as 
nearly as possible, in the same order as the Latin ; then let him give the corres- 
ponding English. This will make the study of Latin a valuable auxiliary to the 
study of the English Idioms. 

3. It very often happens, that the inhabitants of dif- 
ferent portions of the same country have peculiar ex- 
pressions, and modes of pronouncing certain words, so 
marked as to betray their locality. This peculiarity is 
called Dialect, from a Greek word meaning different 
speech . 

Thus, we can determine very well in what part of the United States 
a person resides by his speech. In ancient times, when men travelled 
less, this subdivision of a language into Dialects was carried to such an 
extreme, that in the Grecian peninsula, several distinct Dialects existed; 
as, the Attic, the Ionic, the Doric, &c. ; each as distinct as the different 
orders of Grecian architecture. 



332 STYLE — SIMPLE — WEAK — CONCISE. Book V. 

3. The peculiar mode, in which individuals express 
themselves, is called Style, from a Latin word signify- 
ing a pointed instrument with which the ancients 
wrote. (See extract Styled) 

In the first place, this name evidently meant the difference, percep- 
tible in the characters made in writing ; and from the penmanship it has 
been transferred, by a species of metonymy, to the individual's mode'of 
expressing his thoughts. 

4L. Style is always modified by the narrator's mode 
of thinking. We may always assume, that there will 
be a close likeness between his use of language and his 
manner of thinking. Hence, we speak of his style, 
as simple or florid, weak or strong, concise or diffuse. 

I. A Simple style is without ornament, or only ornamented in a 
moderate degree. 

II. A Florid style abounds in figures, which are sometimes called the 
Flowers of Rhetoric. 

III. A Weak, or Feeble style narrates in an uncertain and loose 
manner. It is understood by an extra exertion only on the part of the 
reader, or hearer. 

IV. A Strong, or Nervous style compels the attention. The thought 
is sure to be made known by it. 

V. A Concise style seeks to convey the thought in the fewest words 
possible. It is always in danger of becoming obscure. 

VI. A Diffuse style spreads out the thought, multiplies words, and 
is liable to become tedious. 

A great many other distinctions may be made in style, according to 
the differences in the characters of the narrators. 

5. Style is also classified, according to the relative 
amount of ornamentation used, into the Dry, Plairij 
Neat, and Elegant. 

I. The Dry style rejects all ornament, and is not attentive even to 
the harmony of the language. It seeks only to convey the meaning 
without regard to the pleasure of the receiver. 

1. To the Defendant. — You are hereby summoned, and required to 
answer the complaint in this action, which will be filed in the office of 
the Clerk of the county of Sullivan, at Monticello, New York, on the 
12th day of July, 1859, and to serve a copy of your answer to the 6aid 



Prop. 2.] STYLE — PLAIN — NEAT. 333 

complaint on the subscribers, at their office, in Monticello, Sullivan Co., 
N. Y., within twenty days after the service of this summons on you, 
exclusive of the day of such service ; and if you fail to answer the said 
complaint within she time aforesaid, the plaintiff in this action will ap- 
ply to the court for the relief demanded in the complaint. Dated, 
July 10th, 1859. 

II. The Plain style uses figurative words, and some of the simpler 
figures. In it, attention is given to the choice of words, and to the mel- 
ody of sentences, or the succession of sounds. 

2. " He is a fool that grumbles at every little mischance. 
Put the best foot forward, is an old and good maxim. Don't 
run about and tell acquaintances, that you have been unfortu- 
nate ; people do not like to have unfortunate men for ac- 
quaintances. Add to a vigorous determination a cheerful 
spirit; if reverses come, bear them like a philosopher, and 
get rid of them as soon as you can. Poverty is like a pan- 
ther ; look it steadily in the face, and it will turn from you." 

III. The Neat style uses the common kinds of figures. In it, 
minute attention is given to the melody and to the harmony of the lan- 
guage. It may be used in almost all kinds of narration. 

3. " You heap a million tons of hewn rocks on a square 
mile, or two of earth, which w T as green "once. The trees look 
down from the hill-sides and ask each other as they stand on 
tiptoe ; ' What are these people about ?' And the small herbs 
at their feet look up and whisper back ; ' We will go and see.' 
So the small herbs pack themselves up in the least possible 
bundles, and wait until the wind steals to them at night and 
whispers ; i Come with me.' Then they go softly with it into 
the great city — one to a cleft in the pavement, one to a spout 
in the roof, one to a seam in the marbles over a rich gentle- 
man's bones, and one to -the grave without a stone, where 
nothing but a man is buried — and there they grow, looking 
down on the generations of men from mouldy roofs, looking 
up from between the less trodden pavements, looking out 
through iron cemetery railings. Listen to them, when there 
is only a light breath stirring, and you will hear them saying 
to each other ; i Wait awhile !' The words run along the 
telegraph of those narrow, green lines, that border the roads, 



834 ELEGANT STYLE. [Book V. 

leading from the city, until they reach the slope of the hills, 
and the trees repeat in low murmurs to each other ; ' Wait 
awhile T By-and-by the flow of life in the streets ebbs, and 
the old leafy inhabitants — the smaller tribes always in front 
- — saunter in, one by one very careless seemingly, but very 
tenacious, until they swarm so, that the great stones gape 
from each other with the crowding of their roots, and the feld- 
spar begins to be picked out of the granite to find them food. 
At last the trees take up their solemn line of march, and 
never rest until they have encamped in the market place. 
Wait long enough and you will find an old doting oak hug- 
ging a huge worn block in its yellow underground arm ; that 
was the corner-stone of the statehouse. Oh, so patient she is, 
this imperturbable nature." — 0. W. Holmes. 

TV. The Elegant style uses figures to any extent within the bounds 
of propriety. It is, in short, the highest and most finished style, in 
which thought is expressed. 

The adaptation of the Bible to every variety of human life, a proof of 
its Divine Origin. 

4." Coeval with 'the infancy of time — it still remains, and 
widens in the circle of its intelligence. Simple as the lan- 
guage of a child — it charms the most fastidious taste. 
Mournful as the voice of grief — it reaches to the highest 
pitch of exultation. Intelligible to the unlearned peasant — 
it supplies the critic and the sage with food for earnest 
thought. Silent and secret as the reproofs of conscience — it 
echoes beneath the vaulted dome of the cathedral, and shakes 
the trembling multitude. The last companion of the dying 
and destitute — it seals the bridal vow, and crowns the maj- 
esty of kings. Closed in the heedless grasp of the luxuri- 
ous and the slothful^ — it unfolds its awful record over the 
yawning grave. Bright and joyous as the morning star to 
the benighted traveller — it rolls like the waters of the del- 
uge over the path of him who wilfully mistakes his way." 
—Mrs. Ellis. 

Suggestion. The student should commit, or make very familiar those ex- 
pressions^ which attract his attention. If the pupils be required to read excellent 
passages very many times, and explanatory remarks be made by the teacher, the 



Prop. 2.] GRECIAN AND ROMAN STYLES. 335 

different varieties of style will be mado thoroughly familiar, and in the simplest 
manner possible. 

The student must not suppose that every period of a passage is in a. 
certain style. To write such, would be almost impossible ; but, that 
the general style of the piece is that, which is mentioned. 

The following extract is from Blackwood's Magazine. It 
illustrates the difference between several of the various kinds 
of style. 

" The difference between the Grecian and the Roman styles is very 
great. When you deal with a Greek subject you must be very devout, 
and have unbounded reverence for Diana of the Ephesians. You must 
also believe in the second sight ; and be as solemn, calm, and passion- 
less as the ghost of Hamlet's father. Never descend to the slightest 
familiarity, nor lay off the stilts for a moment ; and far from calling a 
spade a spade, call it — 

That sharp instrument 
With which the Theban husbandman lays bare 
The breast of our great mother. 

The Roman, on the other hand, may occasionally be jocular — but 
always warlike ; one is like a miracle-play in a church — the other a 
tableau vivant in a camp. If a Greek has occasion to ask his sweet- 
heart " if her mother knows she's out," and " if she has sold her mangle 
yet" — he says : — 

Menestheus. Cleanthe ! 

Cleanthe. My lord ! 

Men. Your mother — your kind, excellent mother, 

She who hung o'er your couch in infancy, 

And felt within her heart the joyous pride 

Of having such a daughter — does she know 

Sweetest Cleanthe ! that you've left the shade 

Of the maternal mansion ? 

Clea: She does, my lord. 

Men. And — but I can scarce ask the question — when 

I last beheld her, 'gainst the whitened wall 

Stood a strong engine — flat, and broad, and heavy, . 

Its entrails stones — and moved on mighty rollers, 

Rendering the crisped web as smooth and soft 

As whitest snow. That engine, sweet Cleanthe ! 

Fit pedestal for household deity — 

Lar and old penates has she it still 1 

Or for gold bribes has she disposed of it ? 

I fain would know — pray, tell me — is it sold ? 



386 PERSPICUITY — ORNAMENT. [Book V. 

The Roman goes quicker to work ; 

TeH me, my Tullia, does your -mother know 
You're out ; and has she sold her mangle yet 1 

The composition of the Elizabethan age* has a spice of both; — 

Conradin. Ha ! Celia, here ! Come hither, pretty one. 

Thou hast a mother, child ? 

Celia. Most people have, sir. 

Con. V faith thou 'rt sharp — thou hast a biting wit, 

But does this mother — this, epitome 

Of what all other people are possessed of — 

Knows she thou'rt out and gadding ? 

Cle. No, not gadding 

Out, sir — she knows I'm out. 

Con. She had a mangle ; 

Faith 't was a huge machine ; and smoothed the webs 

Like snow — I've seen it oft — it was indeed 

A right good mangle. 

Col. Then thou 't not in thoughts 

To buy it — or thou would'st not praise it so. 

Con. A parlous child ! keen as the cold north wind, 

Yet light as Zephyrus — No — no -— not buy it ; 

But hath she sold it, child ?" 



PROPOSITION THIRD. 

1. A Good Style not only enables the readers or 
hearers to understand, but even renders it impossible 
for them not to understand. Its characteristics are* 
Perspicuity and Ornament. 

A narration should be so presented, as to compel the attention, and 
thus secure its proper perception.* It is no more the duty of the nar- 
rator to present knowledge, than it is to attract attention to it, and thus 
secure its reception. 

2. Perspicuity is that property of language, which 
enables the narrator's meaning to be correctly known. 

We are not apt to select those discourses, which require to be read, 
or to be heard several times before they can be understood. " We are 
pleased with a narrator and freely bestow praise upon him, who frees 



Prop. 3.] PURITY. 337 

us from all fatigue in finding his meaning ; who carries us through his 
subject without embarrassment or confusion ; whose style always flows 
like a limpid stream, wherein we see distinctly to the very bottom." 

3. Perspicuity comprises the purity r , propriety ', and 
precision of words and constructions, and the clear- 
ness, strength, unity, and harmony of sentences. 

4. Purity is the use of such words and phrases, as 
belong to the language, and are sanctioned by present 
good usage, in opposition to barbarisms, and solecisms. 

a. Barbarism is the use of archaisms, obsolete words, 
newly-coined words, and foreign words. 

1. Archaism, (p. 314.) "Up I rose three houres after 

twelfer 

1. Obsolete words are those out of use ; obsolescent, those going out 
of use. 

2. " Whereof the other, humbly as she might, 
Thanked her ; for in right il array 

She was with storm and heat, I you behight ; 

And every lady, then anone right." — Chaucer. 1400. 

3. Obsolescent I learnt my lesson ; for I learned my lesson. 

II. Newly-coined words are those recently introduced, which are too 
uncouth to be admitted. All profanity, by-words, and odd phrases evi- 
dently belong to this class of barbarisms. This, of course, does not in- 
clude new scientific terms ; nor corrections of words, which before were 
used improperly. The fear of being charged with the use of a barbar- 
ism must not cause us to hesitate in adopting an improvement. 

4. I do not know whether this belongs to the to-be, or to 
the to-do. 

III. Foreign words, or words from other languages. 

5. The rights of the people were subverted by a coup 
d'etat. 

6. The beau monde assume a certain hauteur in the pres- 
ence of the canaille. 

b. A solecism is an unusual construction of the words form- 
ing a sentence, or the use of a foreign idiom. 

15 



838 PROPRIETY. [Book V. 

7. He plays a good fiddle ; meaning, he plays tie fiddle 
well. 

8. The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on 
the subject. 

This is a French idiom. Omit themselves, and it becomes English. 

5. Propriety consists in the use of such words, as 
are best suited to the nature of that, which is to be ex- 
pressed, in opposition to ill-chosen words, misplaced 
words, and to those errors included under enallage. 
(Seep. 316.) 

Words differ in the general estimation, in which they are held. 
Some being habitually and generally used in connection with lofty 
thoughts; others, in the sciences and arts (Technical names, p. 63); 
others, in the common pursuits of life ; and others, only in low, or vul- 
gar expressions, and yet they may be pure English. Hence, while a 
style may be pure, it may be highly improper ; but, on the contrary, if a 
style be proper, it must be pure. Therefore, barbarism and solecism are 
hostile to propriety of style. 

6. Words are ill-chosen, under the following cir- 
cumstances ; — 

First. When they are vulgar, or low, and the subject is not so. 
Words are the exponents of the narrator's thoughts. 

9. The proposition squints in the wrong direction. 

The proposition looks in the wrong direction. 

10. The man and his brother had & falling out, and a set to, 

Second. When the words are technical, and hence may not be under- 
stood. This does not, of course, apply to technical words, when used 
in the sciences, or when sure to be understood. (See Allusions, p. 181.) 

11. The power of vice increases in & progressive ratio. 

12. Do not array your knowledge in a hollow square; it 
may do for the parade of an army, but is not suited for the 
array of knowledge. 

13. He is as noisy as a buzz-saw, and as useless as a broken 
fly-wheel. 

Third. When a repetition of the same word, or a succession of simi- 
lar words occurs. 

14. I only know, that he only brought it to our house only. 



Prop. 3.] PROPRIETY — PRECISION. 339 

15. The word jingle has another form, gingle, but the 
former form is more used than the latter form. 

Fourth. When the words have meanings barely similar to those, 
which we should use. 

1 6. The man was as mad as he could be, and the boy was dry. 

The man was as angry as he could be, and the boy was thirsty, 

17. Your entrance expelled my bright illusions. 

Fifth. When words are used in prose, which may be used in poetry 
only, or may be used by a poetic license. 

18. I met him last eve [evening], and he promised to call 
at morn. 

19. He walks slow and soft ; for, he walks slowly and softly. 
Sixth. When the words or phrases are ambiguous. 

20. Some phrases are not admissible in sentences without 
a previous explanation. 

Which is to be explained ; the phrases, or the sentences? 

21. I saw a horse-fly through the window. 

I saw through the window, a horse-fly. 

Seventh. When the words are so arranged as to be confused, or are 
used illogically. (See p. 92.) 

22. Virtue, so to speak, is the consummation of all those 
graces, which, arising in the soul, attuned, as it were, to 
the heavenly graces, dispose us to follow, if I may be allowed 
the expression, a certain directness of conduct. 

23. u What is the next rule to be attended to ?" — Illogical. 
Eighth. When the words are unknown, or unintelligible. 

24. The opacity of my intellect is quite conspicuous. 

Propriety of style is violated more often than all the other qualities 
of style combined. No narrator is ever entirely free from this kind of 
error; nevertheless, we should aim at perfection in it. "He, that aims 
at the sun, sends his arrow higher than he, who aims below it." 

7. Precision is using the proper words, and the 
proper number of words, in order to convey our 
thoughts correctly. It is opposed to looseness and 
vagueness of style, and to a redundancy of words. 



340 SYNONYMS. [Book V. 

Precision signifies to cut off. It is used figuratively, as if we prune, or cut off 
redundancies, so that the expression shall be a faithful and exact counterpart of 
the thought. The opposite of a Precise is a vague, loose style. 

8 . Precision is violated in three ways ; first, when 
the expression conveys an idea, which only resembles 
the one intended ; second, when it only conveys a part 
of the idea ; and third, when it conveys too much, 

Clear and accurate thoughts are absolutely essential to enable the 
narrator to frame clear and accurate expressions. One, who thinks 
confusedly, or disjointedly, will necessarily express himself badly. 
Again, all thoughts do not require an equal degree of precision ; some, 
because they are trivial, others, because they are sublime, (p. 323, Fourth.) 

a. The three errors, mentioned as faults in precision, arise 
principally from the use of synonyms, or words having the 
same meaning. It is not probable that a single pair of per- 
fect synonyms can be found in any language. 

Second Suggestion. When, in composing, the choice of several words is of- 
fered, examine each one very carefully, to see which best expresses your idea. 
If you will examine the same piece of composition several times, with intervals 
between each examination, you will find whether you are improving in a knowl- 
edge of the niceties of words. In regard to the study of words, observe this rule. 
"Reflect on every word, which you see, hear, read, or speak ; its birth, derivation, and 
history." 

9. ^Examples of words usually called Synonymous. 

I. Abhor and detest mean to dislike. To abhor is to have a strong 
dislike ; to detest is to have a strong dislike with a strong disapprobation. 

25. A man of refined taste abhors beggary and detests 
stealing. 

II. Acknowledge, avow, and confess mean to confirm. But to ac- 
knowledge supposes a small fault, which the acknowledgment propitiates; 
to avow supposes the person to glory in what is confirmed ; to confess 
supposes the confirmation of a great fault or crime. 

26. A gentleman acknowledges his mistake, and is for- 
given ; a patriot avows his opposition to tyranny, and is ap- 
plauded ; a prisoner confesses his guilt, and is punished. 

m. Alone and only imply singleness. But alone means unaccompa- 
nied ; only, but one of that kind. 

27. This child is alone ; but this is an only child. 



Prop. 3.] SYNONYMS. 341 

28. Virtue alone makes us happy. Virtue only makes 
us happy. 

Virtue unassisted makes us happy. The second is ambiguous. If only be 
taken as an adjunct of virtue, then, nothing but virtue makes us happy; if taken 
with makes, then all virtue can do is to make us happy. 

IV. Almost and mostly mean the greater part. Almost means 
nearly the whole ; mostly, a portion greater than half. 

29. A peninsula is [almost, mostly] surrounded by water. 

Apply the definition in both forms to Africa and to Hindostan. 

V. Amazed, astonished, confounded, and surprised mean unex- 
pected. But I am amazed by what is incomprehensible ; astonished at 
what is vast or great; confounded by what is shocking; surprised by 
what is new or unexpected. 

30. I am amazed by the goodness of the Divine Being; 
astonished at the extent of his works ; confounded by the con- 
duct of the Evil One ; and surprised by the appearance of 
meteors. 

VI. Ambiguous and equivocal mean uncertain. Ambiguous is ap- 
plied to an expression, which may be taken in two ways, as in example 
twenty-eighth; equivocal is applied to an expression, which has two 
meanings ; one being known, and the other unknown to one of the 
parties. 

31. A man, whose thoughts are confused, will often be am- 
biguous ; an honest man never equivocates. 

VII. Austerity, rigor, severity, imply harshness. Austerity relates 
to the manner of living, as opposed to effeminacy; rigor, to punishing, 
as opposed to clemency ; severity, to thinking, as opposed to relaxation, 

32. A hermit is austere in his life ; a fop is effeminate. 
A judge is rigorous in the application of law ; the executive 
is clement in its execution. A casuist is severe in applying 
rules ; a latitudinarian is relax in his principles. 

VIII. By and with signify cause, manner, &c. By shows the rela- 
tion of the Producer as a second object ; with shows the relation of a 
second object of means, or instrument. 

IX. Calm, peace, and tranquillity mean quiet, Calm, with regard 
to a disturbance ; peace, a state free from causes which disturb ; tran- 
quillity, free from trouble. 

33. A good man enjoys the calm after the storm, peace 
with others, and tranquillity in himself. 



&42 SYNONYMS. [Book V. 

X. Complete and entire mean not wanting. Complete, wanting none 
of its appendages ; entire, wanting none of its parts. 

34. John has the entire house, but has no complete apart- 
ment. 

XL Custom and habit signify usual actions. Custom refers to the 
act of a tribe or nation ; habit, to the actions of individuals, produced 
by custom. 

35. By the power of custom, habit grows. 

XII. Desist, quit, and renounce mean to leave. We desist because 
the attempt is difficult; quit, to do something else; and renounce, be- 
cause we are weary, or disgusted. 

36. A politician desists from his plans, when they are too 
difficult ; he quits office-seeking for some respectable pursuit ; 
and he renounces party politics, because he is disgusted by 
them. 

XIII. Difficulty, impediment, and obstacle signify stops, or hin- 
drances. Difficulties grow out of the pursuit, and stop us by embar- 
rassing, or confusing us. We overcome difficulties. Impediments do not 
belong to the pursuit, or are foreign to it, and hinder or retard our prog- 
ress. We remove impediments. Obstacles are foreign to the pursuit and 
stop us. We surmount obstacles. 

37. Here our road branched in several directions, and we 
halted until, by consulting the guide-book, we overcame this 
not-unexpected difficulty. A little farther ahead, a couple of 
trees had fallen across the road. The first, being a small one, 
formed an impediment, which we easily removed ; but the 
second, being very large, formed a more serious obstacle, 
which, by a temporary bridge of poles, we finally surmounted. 

XIV. Discover and invent mean to find. Discover, to find what was 
hidden, but already made ; invent, to find how to make new things. 

38. Hervey discovered the circulation of the blood; but 
Galileo invented the telescope. 

XV. Distinguish and separate signify difference. To distinguish is 
to divide into kinds or classes according to some property as a basis ; 
to separate is to take the parts from each other. 

39. We distinguish the different kinds of grain; as, wheat, 
rye, &c. We separate, by putting them into different bins. 



Prop. 3.] SYNONYMS — CLEARNESS. 343 

XVI. Enough and sufficient relate to quantity. Enough relates to 
the quantity, which one desires ; sufficient, to the quantity used. 

40. The covetous man never has enough ; although fie has 
sufficient for nature. 

41. There are three things, that are never satisfied, yea, 
four things, which say not, It is enough. 

XVII. Fatigue and weariness mean loss of endurance. Fatigue is 
loss of endurance from labor ; weariness, from continuance. 

42. I am fatigued by 'great exertions in a few minutes ; 
but I am wearied without an effort by the length of time. 

XVIII. Observe and remark mean to notice, or to say. Remark is 
to notice objects ; observe, to notice their relations, or uses. 

43. The traveller remarks the different objects, that meet 
his view, and observes their relations to each other. 

XIX. Pride and vanity imply esteem. Pride is undue self-esteem. 
Vanity, undue desire for the esteem of others. 

44. Dean Swift says, "A man may be too proud to be 
vain." 

XX. Prudence and wisdom imply propriety of action. Prudence 
prevents us from saying, or doing improper things ; wisdom leads us to 
speak and to do proper things. 

45. A prudent man employs the best means for avoiding 
difficulties ; a wise man, the best means for overcoming them. 

Third Suggestion. We can not too strongly enforce the importance of frequent 
exercise in the comparison of synonymous words. Bvery remark, every para- 
graph, in which any words, which have corresponding, or equivalent words, 
should be carefully criticised. For instance ; — 

Student. I understand this example. 

Teacher. Are you sure? Do you understand it, or do you know it? 

Student. I think I understand it ; I do not think I know it 

Teacher. What is the difference? (See p. 16.) 

10. Clearness has reference to that part of perspi- 
cuity, which depends on the position of restrictive, or 
qualifying words, phrases, or sentences. It is opposed 
to ambiguity, equivocation, and obscurity. 

a. By many, clearness is confounded with perspicuity. The differ- 
ence, as here used, is conventional, or technical. 



344 CLEAENESS — STRENGTH. [Book Y. 

b. We have shown (p. 128), that the Simple, or Direct arrangement 
of an English sentence requires, first, the subject and its adjuncts ; 
second, Jhe affirmer and its adjuncts ; third, the first object and its ad- 
juncts ; and fourth, the second objects and their adjuncts ; and farther, 
that, in the inverted arrangement, these parts are transposed. We have 
also spoken of the places of Adjuncts. (See pp. 247, 249, &c.) Now 
clearness especially consists in the observance of these rules. Its op- 
posites are caused by their violations. Only a few examples are 
needed here. 

46. I know that he only superintends the establishment. 

In this example, only may be an adjunct of he, or of superintends. It is 
either ; I know that he is the only one, who superintends ; or, I know that he su» 
perintends only ; that|s, does nothing else. 

47. It is folly to attempt to arm ourselves against the ac- 
cidents of life, by heaping up treasures, from which nothing 
can protect us, but Divine Providence. 

Which, as it here stands, refers to treasures, instead of referring to accidents, as 
it should in order to make sense. 

1 1 . Strength is that property of style, which deep- 
ens, or enforces the idea presented. It is especially 
opposed to tautology, or a redundancy of words. 

a. Strength is here used very much, if not entirely the same, as 
strong or nervous in the nervous style. (See p. 332, iv.) 

48. They returned back again to the same city, from 
whence they came. 

The words in italics are tautological, and therefore useless. They 
returned to the city, whence they came. 

b. The most important word must be placed conspicuously. For 
this purpose, we may transpose as much as we see fit, always bearing 
in mind, however, the principles of Emphasis, laid down in the twelfth 
proposition of the third book. 

49. " Neither military, nor civil pomp was wanting. The 
avenues were lined with grenadiers. The streets were kept 
clear by cavalry.'' — Macaulay. 

Let the student re-write and change the places of any of these words, and 
then examine the effects of the change on the strength of the passage. 

c. A shorter sentence should precede a longer ; and a weaker should 
precede one of greater strength. 



Prop. 3.] EUPHONY — MELODY. 345 

50. " The sergeant made proclamation. Hastings advanced 
to the bar, and bent his knee. The culprit was, indeed, not 
unworthy of that great presence. He had ruled, an extensive 
and populous country, had made laws and treaties, had 
sent forth armies, had set up and pulled down princes." — 
Macaulay. 

d. Sentences should not end in short, trivial, or unemphatic words ; 
except it be the intention to demean the expression. (See p. 106, § 3.) 

e. When two ideas are compared, either a similarity, or else a con- 
trast should be maintained in the language. 

51. "Homer hurries us with commanding impetuosity; 
Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty ; Homer scatters 
with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows with a careful 
magnificence." — Pope. 

12. Euphony is a pleasing fitness; first, in the 
sounds employed ; and second, in the adaptation of the 
sound to the idea expressed. It is opposed to ca-coph 1 - 
o-wy, or unpleasantness of sounds. 

a. Our ideas of the fitness, or unfitness of the language will, as a 
matter of course, be influenced by the nature of the thought. 

13. Euphony comprises melody and harmony. (See 
p. 329, d.) 

a. Melody, in language, consists in ; first, agreeable sounds, 
as represented by single letters ; second, by single words ; and 
third, by sentences. 

First. Of the letters, the vowel sounds are the most melodious ; the 
semi-vowels are the next; and the consonants are the least so. (See 
p. 194 and 195.) 

Second. Of words, those containing a fair proportion of vowels, 
semi-vowels, and mutes, the most of the first, and the fewest of the last, 
are the most melodious; as, adamantine, tranquillity, pardon; those 
composed of an excess of vowels lack character; as, revere, ear; those 
having too many consonants are too rough; as, grass, stub, shrink, 
shamefacedness, &c. 

b. Harmony is, first, the agreement or concord of the 

15* 



346 EUPHONY — HARMONY. [Book V. 

sounds represented by words in the same sentence ; and sec- 
ond, of the sound and the sense. 

Every word in a sentence may be melodious, and yet the sentence 
may be unharmonious, if it be badly arranged. 

52. Office or rank may be the recompense of intrigue, ver- 
satility, or flattery. — Unharmonioiis. 

Bank or office may be the recompense of flattery, versatility, or intrigue.— 

Euphonious. 

c. Euphony is also opposed to monotony; hence, too many words, 
accented alike, or of the same length, or having like parts, must not 
come in succession. 

53. No man may put off the law of God. Setter say, No 
man may escape from God's law. 

54. The king was needy, fearful, and feeble. The king 
was feeble, timid, and destitute. 

55. It was my intent to present my bill for payment of 
the rent. 

I intended to present my bill for the rent 

56. And an enormous serpent lay dead on the floor- 

And a serpent of enormous size lay dead on the floor. 

d. Euphony requires variety ; hence, a proper mixture of short and 
long words and sentences should follow in an agreeable succession ; and 
every period should. close with a graceful conclusion, called a cadence. 
(Seep. 142, §30.) 

e. The chief beauty of harmony in language is that wherein the 
6ound is suited to the sense. Calm and gentle emotions are best ex- 
pressed in smooth, flowing words ; while harsh and angry feelings are 
best expressed in harshly sounding words, and rough sentences. 

57. " Heaven opened wide 
, Her ever-enduring gates, harmonious sound, 

On golden hinges turning." 

58. " On a sudden, open fly, 
With impetuous recoil, and jarring sound, 
The infernal doors ; and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder." 

59. " When Ajax strives some rock's huge weight to throw, 
The line too labors, and the words move slow ; 



Prop. 3.] UNITY. 347 

Not so, when swift Camilla scours the plain, 

Flies o'er the unbending corn and skims along the main." 

60. " Soft is the strain, when Zephyr gently blows, 
And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows ; 
But, when loud surges lash the sounding shore, 

The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar." 

f. No definite rules for suiting sound and sense can be given. In 
this matter, the student must be guided by observation and taste. 

14. Unity of composition refers to the singleness 
or simplicity of the construction of the sentences, as op- 
posed to looseness, and to complexity. It may be con- 
sidered ; first , in reference to the Unity of subjects ; 
and second, in reference to Unity of periods. 

First. The Unity of Subjects is preserved, when the General or Lead- 
ing subject of the narration is the subject of those sentences, in which 
it is used as a producer, or as a receiver. (See p. 127, § 6.) 

61. After William had read the newspaper, he began to 
write a letter, but was interrupted by the noise. 

This is a compound contracted sentence, in which William is the Leading sub- 
ject; and is the subject, expressed in the first clause, personated in the second, 
and understood in the third ; hence, in this example, the unity of the subject is 
preserved. See the following, in which the Unity is violated; — 

After William had read the newspaper, a letter was begun by him, but the noise 
disturbed him. 

62. Wolfe ascended the Heights of Abraham, where Mont- 
calm met him. A battle was fought. Wolfe was slain, and 
they slew Montcalm also. 

This example has no Unity, save that, which exists in the thought Compare 
it with the following ; — 

Wolfe ascended the Heights of Abraham, where he was met by Montcalm. 
A battle ensued, in which both were slain. 

Exception. Antithetical propositions are made more striking by vio- 
lating the Unity of the Subjects ; because, for the sake of harmony, 
antithesis in thought should be expressed by a verbal antithesis. 

63. " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." 

We personates the producer, and they the receiver. By using them as subjeots, 
we make an antithesis in the expression, and so add force to it. 

We have met the enemy, and have taken them, is unique, but too tame. 



UNITY OF PERIODS — ORNAMENT. [Book V. 

Second. The Unity of Periods consists in putting such sentences only 
into a period as properly belong to it. 

a. The Unity of the period is often violated by crowding into it a 
sentence, which is so unconnected, that it should be in a distinct period. 

64. He describes, not to the eye alone, but to the other 
senses, and to the whole man ; for he puts his heart into 
his subject, writes as he feels, and humanizes whatever he 
touches. 

By putting for between these two periods, we make the second a sub-joined 
sentence of the first, to which it has nothing but a general relation. 

65. Virtuous men are always the most happy, [but] Vice 
strews the path of her followers with thorns. 

b. The Unity of a period is often violated by the introduction of a 
parenthesis. (See p. 137.) 

The parenthesis should be used very sparingly. It may be the off- 
spring of a quick and lively imagination ; but, as a general rule, it be- 
tokens a want of close thought. The use of the parenthesis is much 
less general now than formerly. 

66. "The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria (which 
were discovered in 1797, by a peasant, who, catching some 
water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that he could 
not move it, and the bottom covered with a shining substance, 
which turned out to be mercury) yield, every year, over three 
hundred thousand pounds of that valuable metal." 

Corrected. The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria, yield every 
year, over three hundred thousand pounds of that valuable metal. 
They were discovered in 1797, &c. 

15. Ornament is that property of style, which ren- 
ders the narration more attractive and pleasing. (See 
p. 336, §1.) 

a. Ornament depends in part on those elements of perspi- 
cuity, which we have just described as Harmony and as 
Unity; but more especially does it depend on the use of 
Figurative Language. (See p. 169.) 

b. Perspicuity is the natural result of a clear and definite 
knowledge of our subject, and of the nature and uses of Ian- 



Pkop. 4.] FORMATION OF A GOOD STYLE. 349 

guage ; ornament is the result of feeling, or sympathy with 
our subject. 

c. When the narrator seeks to convince and influence us 
by appealing to our reason, he is said to be intellectual in his 
style or manner of appealing ; but when he appeals to feel- 
ings or sympathies, he is said to be feeling or emotional in 

his style. 



PROPOSITION FOURTH. 

1 . The Formation of a Good Style requires several 
things on the part of the speaker, or writer. 

First. Clear ideas of the subject ; a definite knowledge 
of its parts and of their relations to each other ; of its ori- 
gin ; its uses ; &c. 

In Book First, we have shown the origin of knowledge ; its differ- 
ent kinds ; the modes of acquiring and of using it, in a general man- 
ner. Now, if we wish to discuss any particular subject, we must first 
gain a knowledge of it, and the more definite our knowledge of it, the 
more perspicuous our style will be ; while the more our feelings are en- 
listed in it, the more ornamental our style will be. (See above, c.) 

Second. A familiar knowledge of the nature and uses of 
sentential language in its Logical, Rhetorical, and Grammat- 
ical relations. 

This includes all that has previously been given in relation to thought, 
and to thought-language. In point of fact, it is in itself the whole sci- 
ence and art of Composition. 

Third. The habit of composing frequently both orally and 
in writing. 

Practice makes perfect. One, who would speak well, must practise 
speaking ; First, to become familiar with the attitudes, gestures, utter- 
ances, and cadences, which speakers use. For this purpose, the com- 
positions of others may be employed. Second, in order to become fa- 
miliar with the sound of his own language and voice ; — " to see how it 
sounds." For this purpose he must use his own compositions. 

One, who would become an expert writer, must write and revise 
very carefully. After writing a composition, lay it aside until it is no 



350 FORMATION OP A GOOD STYLE. Book V. 

longer familiar, then re-write, criticise, and improve it. Do this espe- 
cially with reference to the great principles, concerning which the pub- 
lic mind, especially in our country, is almost always excited, and in a 
little time you will be able to speak and to write well concerning them. 
The greatest difficulty in public speaking is found in stating the princi- 
ples involved properly, and in their proper order. Prepare yourselves 
carefully in regard to the principles, which you intend to discuss. The 
illustrations will need but little attention comparatively. 

When, for the first time, an idea is clearly perceived, we should be 
careful to state it several times to ourselves, varying the words each 
time. This will give us a twofold advantage ; first , it will enable us 
to perceive the idea itself more clearly, and thus make us independent 
of certain set words, in which to express it ; and second, it will enable 
us to vary our style to suit the different occasions, or intellects, with 
reference to which a change of style may be demanded. At least, we 
should be able to define our ideas both synthetically and analytically. 
(See p. 66, Fourth Rule of Definitions.) 

" I enjoin, that such as are beginning the practice of com- 
position, write slowly, and with anxious deliberation. Their 
great object at first should be, to write as well as possible ; 
practice will enable them to write speedily. By degrees, 
matter will offer itself still more readily ; words will be at 
hand ; composition will flow ; every thing, as in the arrange- 
ment of a well-ordered family, will present itself in its proper 
place. The sum of the whole is this ; by hasty composition, 
we shall never acquire the art of composing well ; by writing 
well, we shall come to write speedily." — Quintilian. 

Fourth. The style must be adapted to the subject, to the 
occasion, and to the capacity of the hearers* 

a. In Book First, we have shown that the Synthetic is the mode, 
in which instruction should be addressed to beginners, and the 
Analytic, the mode suited for an advanced course. This furnishes a 
good hint to the writer or speaker [teacher], as to the order of present- 
ing thoughts. 

" Nothing merits the name of eloquent or beautiful, which 
is not suited to the occasion, and to the persons to whom it is 
addressed. It is to the last degree awkward and absurd, to 
attempt a poetical, florid style, on occasions when it should be 
our business only to argue and to reason ; or to speak with elab- 
orate pomp of expression before persons, who comprehend 



Prop. 4.] FORMING A GOOD STYLE. 351 

nothing of it, and who can only stare at our unseasonable 
magnificence. These are defects not so much in point of 
style, as, what is much worse, in point of common sense. 
When we begin to write or speak, we ought previously to fix 
in our minds a clear conception of the end to be aimed at ; to 
keep this steadily in our view, and to suit our style to it. If 
we do not sacrifice to this great object every ill-timed orna- 
ment that may occur to our fancy, we are unpardonable ; and 
though children and fools may admire, men of sense will 
laugh at us and our style." — Blair. 

Fifth. Study carefully those things, which are pleasing in 
the modes of expression, and in the use of words by others, 
giving attention to all the peculiarities of the style ; not with 
a view of imitating it, but in order to improve and to develop 
your own taste. 

We can not leave this subject without calling attention to the present 
mode of conducting recitations by written or set questions and answers. 
This practice, beside being in the main simply a memoriter process, is 
peculiarly hostile to the habit of composing. By it, the pupil is fur- 
nished with words to be repeated, and these words, being in contracted 
sentences, and contracted with reference to the questions, bring it to pass 
that the pupil is not exercised in using ; and hence is not enabled to use 
his own language, much less to understand that portion of the lan- 
guage of others, which he does use. Hence, pupils grow up in our 
schools ; first, with no habits of thought carefully developed ; second, 
not only with no command of language, but with an absolute dread of 
Composition. This would never be the case, if from the beginning 
the pupils were accustomed to express their own views and thoughts as 
freely in the school-room, as on the play-ground. 

Children require no special training in order to express their feelings 
and desires when out of school, because it has become habitual from 
practice ; but in the school-room, the practice is reversed ; and just at 
the end of the school-course, if ever, the student enters upon the study 
of Rhetoric and of Logic ; as, if no previous occasion for the use of 
these studies had occurred. 



352 PROSE — TERSE — RHYME. [Book V. 



PROPOSITION FIFTH. 

1 . Compositions are divided into Prose, and Verse 
Compositions. 

2. Prose Composition is that, in which the language 
is used in its ordinary, or direct forms. 

3. Verse Composition is that, in which the language 
is arranged in lines, each of which contains a certain 
number of long and short syllables, called a Verse. 

Verse is from a Latin word meaning a turn, because at the end of 
each line or verse, the author returns to the beginning of the next verse. 
The term Verse should not be confounded with Stanza, as is often done. 

4L Two, or more Verses form a Stanza. A Stanza 
of two Verses is called a Distich [Dis tik] ; of three, a 
Tristich ; of four,& Tetrastich; of Jive, a Pent astich; 
&c. A part of a Verse is a Hemistich, (p. 168.) 

The stanza may contain any number of verses, according to the 
pleasure of the author. When they are to be adapted to music, the 
stanzas should be uniform, or similar. 

5. Verse is divided into two kinds : Rhyme, and 
Blank Verse. 

6. Rhyme is where verses end with syllables having 
similar sounds. 

a. Rhyme is said to be Perfect, when the latter part of the rhyming 
syllables are pronounced alike, and the former parts are unlike ; as — 

1. " Such sights, as youthful poets dream 

On summer eves, by haunted stream." 

b. Rhyme is said to be Imperfect, when the syllables are not pro- 
nounced alike, or have a resemblance only. 

2. " As I suppose, had more heart's ease 

Than I, for I had no sickness, nor disease." 

3. " Shall only man be taken in the gross f 

Grant only as many sorts of mind as moss." 



Prop. 5.] BLANK VERSE — VERSIFICATION. 353 

c. Rhymes, occurring in the middle and at the end of the verses, are 
called Double Rhymes ; as — 

4. The soft light lay on the hills all day, 
As it flowed from the arch of heaven ; 
While many a ray afar did stray 
Through the valley and glen — 

d. Two verses, rhyming together, are called a Couplet; three, are 
called a Triplet. They may be the whole, or only a part of a stanza. 

5. " Four limpid fountains from the cliff distil ; } 

And every fountain pours a several rill, > Triplet. 

In mazy windings, wandering down the hill ; ) 
Where blooms with vivid green are crowned, } Coup- 
And glowing violets cast their odors round." j let. 

e. Sometimes, by a change in the pronunciation of words, syllables 
cease to rhyme. This frequently makes old poetry appear to have im- 
pure rhyme. Thus, tea was pronounced tay ; sea, say ; &c. 

6. I am monarch of all I survey, 
My right there is none to dispute, 

From the centre all round to the sea [say]. 

7. Here thou, Great Anna, whom three realms obey, 
Dost sometimes counsel take — and sometimes tea [tay]. 

7. Blank Verse is that kind of poetry, which has 
no Rhyme. 

a. Blank Yerse is fitted for subjects of a grave, dignified, or sublime 
character. Rhyme is better suited to gay, and light subjects. 

8. " O, unexpected stroke, worse than of death ! 

Must I thus leave thee, Paradise ? Thus leave 
Thee, native soil, these happy walks and shades, 
Fit haunt of gods ?" 

8. Verse-making is called Versification. Resolving 
a verse of poetry into its parts is called Scanning-. 

9. Verses are divided into parts, called Measures 
or Feet> each of which contains either two, or three 
syllables. 



354 



MEASURES — PRIMARY — SECONDARY. [Book V. 



a. There are four Dissyllabic Measures or Feet;- — 

1. The Pyrrhic, two short syllables; as, of the | day. 

2. The Spondee, two long syllables ; as, long gone. 

3. The Iambus, a short and a long syllable ; as, diffuse. 

4. The Trochee, a long and a short syllable ; as, edict. 

b. There are eight Trisyllabic Measures or Feet ; — 



1. Tribrach ^ u ^, im | potently. 

2. Mollossus , long gone bye. 

3. Anapest •-> u -, to the sea. 

4. Dactyl - o ~, dissipate. 



5. Bacchius u --, not long gone. 

6. Antibacchius — ^, my honor. 

7. Amphibrach ^-^, condition. 

8. Amphimacer - v- , condescend. 



c. The quantity of the syllables in these feet depends on 
the accent, not on the quantity of the vowels. In English 
poetry, every accented syllable is long ; the unaccented are 
short.. Repeat a line of poetry, and you will quickly perceive, 
that, in order to read it easily, the voice accents certain syl- 
lables, which are distinguished by the macron. (See p. 143.) 

10. These Measures or Feet are divided into two 
classes ; the Primary and the Secondary, 

1 1. The Primary Measures are those, with each of 
which a whole poem may be formed without the aid of 
the other feet. They are the Iambus, the Trochee, the 
Anapest, and the Dactyl. 

12. The Secondary Measures are those, of which 
whole verses are seldom or never formed. They are* 
used occasionally to vary a line. 

a. A verse containing only one kind of feet is said to be Pure Meas- 
ure ; one, containing two or more kinds of feet, is said to be a Mixed 
Measure. 

13. A verse of one foot is called a Monom'eter ; 
of two feet, a Dim 1 eter; of three, a Trim' eter; of four, 
a Tetram eter ; of five, a Pentam'eter ; of six, a Hex- 
am' eter; of seven, a Heptameter ; and of eight, an 
Octam'eter line or Verse. 



Tkop. 5.] IAMBIC VERSES. 355 

a. When a verse has all of the syllables required, it is said to bo 
acatalectic; when it wants a syllable, it is said to be catalectic; when it 
has a syllable too many, it is said to be hyper catalectic. 

9. Iambic Verses. 
There are eight varieties of Iambic Verse. 

1. Iambic Monometer. Complain. 

In vain. 

2. Iambic Dimeter. Some toil | and sow 

That wealth may flow. 

3. Iambic Trimeter. Uplift | your load | again! 

Take up the mourning strain. 

4. Iambic Tetrameter. The mlgh | ty mas | ter smiled, | to see 

That love was in the next degree. 

5. Iambic Pentameter. 

The ma | ny rend | the sky | with loud | applause; 
So Love was crowned, but Music won the cause. 

a. The Iambic Pentameter is called the English Heroic Verse. 

6. Iambic Hexameter. 

His heart | Is sad, | his hope | Is gone, | his light | is passed; 
He sits and mourns in silent grief the lingering day. 

b. This is usually called the Alexandrine Verse. It is generally used 
at the close of a Stanza, or of a Poem. 

7. Iambic Heptameter. 

In for | eign realms | and lands | remote, | support | ed by | thy care, 
Through burning climes I passed unhurt, and breathed in tainted air. 

c. The English Iambic Heptameter is usually divided after the fourth 
foot and arranged alternately in Tetrameter and Trimeter Iambic ; usu- 
ally known as Common Meter. It may rhyme in couplets or alternately, 
or in the second and fourth verses only ; as — 

In foreign realms and lands remote, 
Supported by Thy care, 
Through burning climes, I passed unhurt, 
And breathed in tainted air. 

8. Iambic Octameter. This is usually divided into lines of four feet 
each, called Long Meter. 

Be thou, O God, exalted high ! 
And as thy glory fills the sky, 
So let it be on earth displayed, 
Till thou art here, as there obeyed. 

d. The SJiort Meter is an Iambic Yerse, having Trimeters in the first, 
second, and fourth verses, and a Tetrameter in the third. 



356 TROCHAIC — ANAPESTIC — DACTYLIC. [Book V. 

Sow in the morn thy seed, 

At eve hold not thy hand — 

To doubt and fear give thou no heed — 

Broadcast it o'er the land. 

10. Trochaic Verses. 
The Trochaic is used in six varieties. 

1. Changing. 

2. Hoary | willow. 

3. Go where | glory | waits thee. 

4. Under | neath the | sod low | lying. 

5. Virtues, | brlght'ning | ray shall | beam for | evSr. 

6. On a | mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow. 

11. Anapestic Verses. 

1. They complain. 

2. In my rage | shall be seen. 

3. As his corse | to the ram | part we hurried. 

4. At the close | of the" day | when the ham | let Is still. 

12. Dactylic Verses. 

1. Carefully. 
2. Was it not | pitiful. 
3. Wearing a | way in his | youthfulness. 
4. Boys will an | ticipate, | lavish and | dissipate, 

13. Mixed Verses. 
1. Honor | and shame | from no | condi | tion rise. 
2. My right \ there is none | to dispute. 

In the following example, the poet has accommodated the sound to 
the sense very finely by changing from the Iambic to the Trochaic. 

14. Till once, 'tis said, when all were fired, 
Filled with fury, rapt, inspired. — Collins. 

A verse, which is deficient in syllables, may be considered either as 
catalectic, or as hypermeter ; as — 

15. In the | days of | old. 

If this be considered as a dimeter, it is dimeter, hypermeter; but, if 
it be considered a trimeter, it is trimeter, catalectic. 

14. Every verse of more than nine syllables re- 
quires such an arrangement of words, that the voice 
may pause without seeming to separate words belong- 



Prop. 5.] CESUKAL — EPIC. 357 

ing to the same logical part ; this is called the Primary 
Pause, or the Cesural. Sometimes other pauses of 
less importance occur, which are called Secondary 
Pauses, or Secondary Cesurals. 

a. In Iambic pentameters, or Heroic verses, the Cesural should fall 
after the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable. 

16. So peaceful rests, j| without a stone, || a name, 
That once had beauty, || titles, wealth, and fame — 
A heap of dust alone || remains of thee ; 
'Tis all thou art, || and all the proud | shall be ! 
The double bars signify the Primary ; the single bar, the Secondary Cesural. 

b. The Iambic hexameter or Alexandrine, requires the Cesural after 
the third foot. 

17. The dew was falling fast, || the stars began to blink; 

I heard a voice ; it said, || " Drink, pretty creature, drink !" 

c. As a general rule, the cesural should not fall in the same place in 
several successive verses, as this produces an unpleasant sameness. 

15. The essential difference between prose and 
poetry is in the idea or thought. Poetry is the lan- 
guage of the emotions and passions. Hence, figures 
and figurative language are poetic. 

a, All poetic thoughts are not expressed in verse ; nor does all verse 
contain poetry. A little girl, looking up at the stars, said, " If the 
outside of Heaven be so beautiful, how beautiful must the inside be V* 
So a German poet said, "I love God and little children.* Both of 
these expressions are poetic ; real poetry. Too many mistake rhyme 
for poetry. 

16. The divisions peculiar to poetry, are the Epic, 
the Pastoral, the Lyric, the Epigram, and the Elegy. 

a. There are several varieties, as the didactic, satirical, descriptive, &c, 
which are common both to poetry and to prose, and will be so discussed. 

17. Epic Poetry is used in describing important 
characters and events for the purpose of moral instruc- 
tion. It is often called Heroic poetry, because poems 
of this kind are narratives of some leading character 
or hero. 



858 PASTORAL — LYRIC. [Book V. 

a. The Epic is the most noble kind of poetry. It requires an ele- 
vated and finished style, and admits any degree of ornament, which is 
not hostile to sublimity. Of the many, who have attempted Epic 
poetry, only a few have attained success. Milton's Paradise Lost, 
Tasso's Jerusalem, Virgil's iEneid, and Homer's Iliad, are regarded as 
the master Epics. 

b. The arrangement of the parts of the narrative, contained in an 
Epic, is called the Plot. This is made known to the reader by descrip- 
tions, which come from the poet directly, and by descriptions, which are 
given by him indirectly in the form of conversations and soliloquies 
through the hero and other personages. 

c. The causes of the narrative, and the means, by which the Plot is 
carried on, are called the Machinery of the Epic. Some mean by Ma- 
chinery, the parts borne by supernatural beings only. 

d. Little narratives, or descriptions, introduced for the sake of em- 
bellishment, are called Episodes. 

18. Pastoral Poetry describes the persons and 
events of rural life, for the purposes of entertainment. 
It is called Pastoral, because it was first used to de- 
scribe scenes in the keeping of sheep, or shepherd-life. 

a. Pastorals present scenes neither too refined, nor yet too gross. 
Such as naturally might be supposed to occur in the quiet of a life 
spent in rural pursuits. 

b. A short Pastoral is called an Idyl. A conversation between 
shepherds or rustics is called an Eclogue. A Pastoral, in which herds 
and herdsmen are introduced, is called a Bucolic. 

19. Lyric Poetry includes such poems, as are espe- 
cially intended to be set to music, or to be sung. 

a. Lyric poetry is so called, because anciently the lyre was used to 
accompany the voice in singing. 

b. Lyrics are divided into various kinds, according to their subjects ; 

First. The Ode, a lyric celebrating some great achievement, or con- 
taining an apostrophe to some being, divine, or human; as, Collins' 
" Ode on the Passions ;" Dryden's " St. Cecilia's Day;" Wordsworth's 
" Ode on Immortality." 

Odes sung in honor of the gods, were called Hymns, or Psalms; 
names which are now applied to sacred songs only. Those, which may 
be sung in parts, responsively, are called Anthems. 



Prop. 5.| BALLAD — SONNET. 359 

Second. The Ballad, a lengthy lyric describing some incident of an 
historical, or of a romantic nature. 

Third. The Song, a short lyric describing some emotion, passion, or 
event, either sacred, or profane. If the song be of an amorous charac- 
ter, and of less than ten, or twelve lines in length, it is called a Madrigal. 

Fourth. The Sonnet, a lyric of fourteen lines, so arranged, that the 
first, fourth, fifth, and eighth ; the second, third, sixth, and seventh ; 
the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth ; and the tenth, twelfth, and four- 
teenth lines rhyme with each other. 

Sonnet to Sleep.— Wordsworth, 

18. A flock of sheep that leisurely pass by, 
One after one ; the sound of rain, and bees 
Murmuring ; the fall of rivers, winds, and seas, 
Smooth fields ; white sheets of water, and pure sky ; 
I thought of all by turns, and yet I lie 
Sleepless ! and soon the small birds' melodies 
Must hear, first uttered from my orchard-trees, 
And the first cuckoo's melancholy cry. 
Even thus last night, and two nights more, I lay 
And could not win Thee, Sleep ! by any stealth, 
So do not let me wear to-night away. 
Without Thee, what is all the morning's wealth ? 
Come, bless'd barrier between day and day, 
Dear mother of fresh thoughts and joyous health. 

a. The sonnet was derived from the Italian, in which it is used to 
express the most lofty and pure conceptions with the greatest strength, 
and pathos. In English, the rhymes of the last six lines frequently 
vary from the rule given above. 

The following sonnet embodies the reply of the Tyrolese in answer 
to an insulting demand of unconditional surrender by the French. 

19. "The land we, from our fathers, had in trust, 
And to our children will transmit, or die ; 
This is our maxim, this our piety, 
And God and Nature say that it is just ; 
That which we would perform in arms we mustt 
We read the dictate in the infant's eye, 
In the wife's smile, and in the placid sky, 
And at our feet, amid the silent dust 
Of them that were before us. Sing aloud 
Old Songs — the precious music of the heart! 
Give, herds and flocks, your voices to the wind, 



360 EPIGRAM — ELEGY. [Book V. 

While we go forth, a self-devoted crowd, 

With weapons in the fearless hand, to assert 

Our virtue, and to vindicate mankind." — Wordsworth 

20. The Epigram consists of a few lines, contain- 
ing a pun, a riddle, a conundrum, or any witty idea. 

20. " With death doomed to grapple, 
Beneath this cold slab, he, 
Who lied in the Chapel, 
Now lies in the Abbey." — Byron. 

2 1 . The Elegy is a description of a dead person, 
or of a death-bed scene, and hence, is of a sad and 
mournful character. A short Elegy, or inscription, is 
called an Epitaph. An Elegy, which is intended to be 
sung, is called a Dirge. All of these are sometimes 
called Exequies. 

a. One of the finest examples of elegies, and of epitaphs, in our 
language, is found in Gray's " Elegy in a Country Churchyard." 

21. Epitaph on Henry Kirk White. — Byron. 

No marble marks thy couch of lowly sleep, 
But living statues there are seen to weep ; 
Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 
Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom. 

22. Dirge. — C. G. Eastman. 

Softly ! She is lying with her lips apart. 
Softly ! She is dying of a broken heart. 
Whisper ! She is going to her final rest. 
Whisper ! Life is growing dim within her breast. 
Gently ! She is sleeping ; she has breathed her last 
Gently ! While you are weeping, she to Heaven has past 

23 Exequy on the Death of a Beloved Wife. — Henry King. 

Sleep on, my love, in thy cold bed, 

Never to be disquieted ; 

My last "good night I " Thou wilt not wake, 

Till I thy fate shall overtake ; 

Till age, or grief, or sickness, must 

Many my body to the dust, 

It so much loves, and fill the room, 

My heart keeps empty in thy tomb. 



Prop. 6.] LETTER- WRITING. 361 

Stay for me there ; I will not fail 

To meet thee in that hallowed vale ; 

And think not much of my delay, 

I am already on the way, 

And follow thee with all the speed 

Desire can make, or sorrow breed. 

Each minute is a short degree, 

And every hour a step toward thee. 

At night, when I betake to rest ; 

Next morn I rise nearer my West 

Of life, almost by eight hours' sail, 

Than when sleep breathed his drowsy gale. 



PROPOSITION SIXTH. 

1. According to matter, or subjects, writings are 
divided into the Epistolary, Historical, Philosophical, 
Fictitious, Dramatic, and Oratorical. 

2. Epistolary Correspondence, or Letter-writing is 
needed by all persons, either for business, for friend- 
ship, or for instruction. It involves the following Rules. 

I. " We should write to an absent person, as we would speak to the same 
person if present" If at a loss for something to write, imagine the per- 
son just entering your presence, and then what you would say. 

II. Be as concise as possible without being obscure. 

III. Avoid display. Naturalness, or ease is the grace of letter-writing. 

IV. Avoid ambiguities. Not only may an epistle be ambiguous from 
the causes mentioned under perspicuity, but it may become ambiguous 
from being badly written, or blotted ; or being torn in opening, from 
having been sealed in the wrong place. 

V. Preserve your own personality, and also that of the person addressed 
throughout the letter. 

j From Mr. Brown to Miss Green. 

J Mr. Brown's compliments to Miss Green, and begs that / may bo 

i permitted to accompany you to the opera this evening. 

This note begins in the third person; hence, I should be he; and you should 
be her. In notes, the third person is generally used. 

VI. Answer a letter at the proper time, if at all. Many neglect the 
reply to a letter far beyond the proper time, and then are obliged to in- 
dite a long, and, to the reader, a tiresome apology. 

16 



862 KINDS OF LETTEES. [Book V. 

VII. In answering a letter, mention first the date of the letter , to which 
you send an answer ; as, In answer to yours of June 10th, etc., or, Yours 
of June 10th was duly received; in answer, I beg leave to say, etc. 
Mention, second, the particular proposition, to which your reply is made ; as, 
" In regard to the terms for the dictionaries/' etc. 

Note. — Such contractions, as are generally known, may be used. 

3. Letters may be considered as Letters of Busi- 
ness, Intelligence, Compliment, or of Condolence, 
Friendship, Excuse, and of Introductions. Small let- 
ters are called Notes, or Billets. 

a. Business letters should be begun as directed in Rule VII. Say all 
that is necessary in connection with the business, so that the party ad- 
dressed may fully understand you in regard to it. 

b. Letters of Intelligence, or Neivs-letters, are used to inform others of 
certain events or facts. In this, state nothing but what you know to be 
true, unless you state it as dubious. 

" Tell not as news, what every body knows, 
And, new or old, still hasten to a close/' — Cowper. 

If you write for any newspaper, or periodical, observe the following 
rules and advice, quoted from the New York Tribune. 

" When you have written what you have to say, run it over and see 
if there be not some sentences that could be spared without serious in- 
jury. If there be, out with them ! We are often compelled to decline 
good articles because we can not make room for them. A half column 
has ten chances, where two columns have one, and three columns none. 

" Try to disparage as little as possible, and where you must condemn, 
let your facts be stronger than your words. 

"When you assail any cause, or person, always give us your real 
name, which we shall give up to whomsoever has a right to demand it. 
He is a sneak and a coward who could ask us to bear the responsibility 
of his attacks on others. 

" Do not write on both sides of a sheet. 

" If you send us word that you ' have written in great haste, and have 
no time to correct/ we shall put your manuscript quietly into the fire. 
Why should you throw on us the task of correcting your scrawl, when 
we are obliged to slight our own work daily for want of time ? 

" Give us facts, incidents, occurrences, at the earliest moment, and 
we shall be grateful, though you wrote with a pudding-stick ; but if you 
attempt logic or sentiment, do it up right, instead of leaning on us." 



Prop. 6.] LETTER- WRITING. 

c. Letters of Compliment, or of Condolence, should be so worded as to 
show our joy at the success, or, our sympathy with the misfortunes, 
and griefs of those addressed. They should be restricted to the subject 
of the letter, and seldom or never, may business be mentioned in them. 

d. Letters of Friendship should be familiar, and easy, containing 
only such intelligence of ourselves, as is sure to interest the party ad- 
dressed. At the same time, they should show that we feel an interest 
in whatever concerns the other party. 

e. Letters of Excuse are intended to explain, or to palliate some 
transaction. They should not be delayed a moment after we are aware 
that they are needed. 

f. Letters of Introduction are either to recommend one of our friends 
to another, or to recommend a person, whom we know, in the way of 
business, to others. These letters should be truthful, definite, and clear. 
First, state what you know personally to be true of the person's capacity, 
qualifications, etc. ; and then, in what respects you know by hearsay 
only, or do not know at all. 

4. In writing letters, we must observe the Date, 
Address, Signature, Postscript, Folding, Superscrip- 
tion, and Postage. 

a. Date a letter near the right-hand upper corner. A note may be 
dated under the writing near the left-hand side. 

b. The Addi'ess consists of the name, the title, if there be one, and the 
style. The name and title may be placed at the left on the next line 
under the date, or they may be under the written part at the left. In 
the former case, the style should be under them ; in the latter, the style 
takes the place of the name. 

According to the degree of familiarity, or equality, a gentleman may 
be styled Sir, Dear Sir, or My dear Sir ; a married lady, Madam, Dear 
Madam, or My dear Madam ; an unmarried lady, Miss, Dear Miss, or My 
dear Miss, or the name may follow the style, as Miss A. In addressing 

relatives, the name of the relationship may follow My dear . The 

style of a business firm is Gentlemen, or Ladies ; of a clergyman, Rever- 
end, or Rev. ; of a physician, Doctor, or Dr. ; of a lawyer, or gentleman, 
Esquire, or Esq., etc. 

The oldest unmarried daughter is styled Miss Jones; the younger 
daughters, Miss Caroline Jones, Miss Sarah Jones, etc. An unmarried 
son, Master Jones, or Master William Jones. 

Box 217, New York, \ 
March 1, 1860. $ 
Alexander J. TJwmpson, Esq. ; 
- Dear Sir, 



364 ADDRESSES — SIGNATURES. [Book V. 

Albany, April 16, 1861. 



Mrs. Laura Jones ; 
Dear Madam, 



Miss Sarah Mead ; 

My dear Friend, or 
My dear Miss Mead ; 



Wilson st., Brooklyn, ) 
August 19, 1864. I 



My dear Parents, or 

My dear Father and Mother ; 



At Sea, September 10, 1864. 



Chicago, May 12, 1863. 
Messrs. Brown and Beauty ; 
Gentlemen, 



New York, July 5, 1864. 
Hon. A. L. Stevenson, 

Chairman of Finance Committee; 
Sir, 



c. The signature or subscription consists of the final paragraph and 
the name of the writer. Sometimes the writer's official title is to be 
placed under his name. 

Your obedient servant, 

John Jones. 

Adieu, my dear West, and believe me, yours ever, 

H. Walpole. 
Believe me ever, dear Miss Edgivorth, 

Yours with the greatest truth and respect, 

Walter Scott. 

I pray God to bless you both, being ever your affectionate friend, 

B. Franklin. 
From your dutiful son, 

Trueman Wiseman. 
I have the honor to remain, 

Your obedient servant, 

William Cremarue, 
Deputy Com'r of Supplies. 



Prop. 6.] LETTER-WRITING. 365 

d. Postscripts should not be used, if it be possible to avoid them. 
Before signing the letter, pause, and consider if all has been written, 
which you wish to write. By no means defer inquiries for health, con- 
gratulations, or compliments to a postscript. It appears too much like 
forgetting them. 

e. Folding. If the sheet is to be sent in an envelope, first double it 
so that its width may be equal to the length of the envelope, then fold 
it crosswise with the fewest folds possible to suit the width. Sealing- 
wax is generally to be preferred to wafers, or the self-sealing envelope 
may be used. Letters of Introduction should not be sealed, if given to 
the party introduced. 

f. The Superscription, or Direction on the outside of the letter, con- 
sists of the name, the place of residence or town, county, and state. 
It should be neatly and distinctly written. In general, double titles 
should be avoided. That is, we may write Mr. Seih Sears, or Seth 
Sears, Esq. Mr. or Dr. Asa Jones, or Asa Jones, M. D. The Rev. 
Dr. John Adams, but not The Rev. John Adams, D. D. On the left- 
hand lower corner of Letters of Introduction, place the words, To intro- 
duce Mr. , Introducing Mr. . 

f. The Postage should be pre-paid on all letters pertaining to the 
writer's own business. When this is required by law on all letters, the 
writer should inclose a stamp, or stamps sufficient to pay the postage 
of the answer. If the letter be sent by a friend or acquaintance, as a 
matter of convenience, place in the left-hand lower corner the words, 

Politeness of Mr. , or Favored by Mr. , or Care of Miss . 

The last is also used, when we wish to ask the attention of a third party 
to the delivery of a letter. 

Examples op Notes and Letters. 

Mrs. Jones requests the pleasure of the Rev. Mr. Brown and 
Lady's company to dinner on Tuesday next, at 5 o'clock. 
75 Lexington Avenue. 
May 11. 

Mr. and Mrs. Brown accept with pleasure Mrs. Jones 9 polite 
invitation for Tuesday next. 
5 London Terrace. 
May 12. 

Mr. and Mrs. Brown's compliments to Mrs. Jones, and regret 
that a previous engagement prevents them frdm accepting her hind 
invitation for Tuesday next. 
5 London Terrace. 
May 12. 



366 JOHNSON'S FAMOUS LETTER. [Book V, 

United States Barque Release, ) 
Lievely, Isle of Disco, Greenland, July 9, 1855. ) 

Sir : — I have the honor to inform you of the arrival of the Arctic 
Expedition here on the 5th inst. after a most boisterous passage, during 
most of which we were enveloped in dense fogs. * * * * # * 
*#####=& In conclusion, it affords me much pleasure to 
state that we are all well and in full spirits. 

Very respectfully, &c, your obedient^servant, 
H. I. Hartstene, 
Lieut. Commanding Arctic Expedition. 
Hon. J. C. Dobbin, 

Secretary of the Navy, Washington, D. C. 

" To the Right Honorable the Earl of Chesterfield ; 

" My Lord, 
" I have been lately informed by the proprietor of " The World," 
that two papers, in which my Dictionary is recommended to the public, 
were written by your lordship. To be so distinguished is an honor 
which, being very little accustomed to favors from the great, I know not 
well how to receive or in what terms to acknowledge. 

" When, upon some slight encouragement, I first visited your lord- 
ship, I was overpowered, like the rest of mankind, by the enchantment 
of your address, and could not forbear to wish that I might boast my- 
self, Levainguerdu vainguer de la terre; that I might obtain that re- 
gard for which I saw the world contending. But I found my attend- 
ance so little encouraged, that neither pride nor modesty would suffer 
me to continue it. When I had once addressed your lordship in public, 
I exhausted all the art of pleasing which a retired and uncourtly scholar 
can possess. I had done all that I could; and no man is well pleased 
to have his all neglected, be it ever so little. 

" Seven years, my lord, have now passed, since I waited in your 
outward rooms, or was repulsed from your door ; during which time I 
have been pushing on my work through difficulties, of which it is use- 
less to complain, and have brought it at last to the verge of publication 
without one act of assistance, or one word of encouragement, or one 
smile of favor. Such treatment I did not expect, for I never had a 
patron before. 

" The Shepherd in Virgil grew at last acquainted with Love, and 
found him a native of the rocks. 

"Is not a patron, my lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man 
struggling for life in tlfe water, and when he has reached the ground, 
encumbers with help ? The notice which you have been pleased to 
take of my labors, had it been early, had been kind ; but it has been 
delayed until I am indifferent, and can not enjoy it ; till I am solitary, 



Prop. 6.] HISTORICAL WRITINGS. 367 

and can not impart it ; till I am known, and do not want it. I hope it 
is no very cynical asperity, not to confess obligations where no benefit 
has been received ; or to be unwilling that the public should consider 
me as owing that to a patron, which Providence has enabled me to do 
for myself. 

" Having carried on my work thus far with so little obligation to any 

favor of learning, I shall not be disappointed though I should conclude 

it, if less be possible, with less ; for I have been long wakened from. 

that dream of hope, on which I once boasted with so much exultation. 

" My Lord, your lordship's most humble, 

" Most obedient servant, 

"Sam. Johnson." 

5. Historical Writings are accounts of past events 
and transactions. They include National History, 
Biography, Annals, Voyages, and Travels. 

a. National History, or History should comprise a true and impartial 
statement of occurrences whether considered as causes, or as effects ; a 
description of persons, and of characters ; and correct statements of 
times and places, (p. 53, § 16.) It admits all the styles of writing; the 
dry, the plain, the neat, and the elegant. Read Botta's, Robertson's, 
Prescott's, Hume's, and Bancroft's Histories, 

b. Biography is the history of an individual. If given by himself, it 
is called Autobiography. If given in connection with a notice of the in- 
dividual's decease, it is called an Obituary. Care should be taken not 
to disgust the reader by an undue, or over-wrought praise of the person 
described ; in short, tell the truth. See Boswell's Life of Johnson ; 
Abbott's Napoleon. 

Note. — The best history is that, which enables us to understand both 
national and individual matters, by a happy blending of National His- 
tory and Biography. Several such works have been written ; among 
which we recur with pleasure to Bancroft's History of the United States, 
Macaulay's History of England, D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation, 
and last, but not least, the Bible, which, for the variety of characters 
presented, and for truthfulness of statement, is beyond comparison. 

c. Annals are records of facts, or events in the order of occurrence, 
or chronological tables. They differ from history in omitting the place, 
and causes, or motives of actions. Very much, that is taught in the 
schools as history, is simply annals. 

d. Voyages are journeys on water, and Travels are journeys on land. 
Their chief excellence is in the correctness of their descriptions, people, 
places, and objects. The writer should describe these so naturally, 



368 PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS — FICTITIOUS. [Book V, 

that the reader may be enabled to form an imaginary picture of them. 
These writings should receive a larger share of attention, than is now 
given to them, especially by the young. While reading voyages, or 
travels,, the map should be open at the reader's side, and the traveller's 
route should be traced very carefully. Read Humboldt's Travels^ 
MacKenzie's and Columbus' Voyages, Ross' and Kane's Artie Expedi- 
tions, Fremonfs Travels ; and the many others, which you will find. In 
connection with the reading, try to recall what events transpired in the 
country visited. (See p. 30.) 

6. Philosophical Writings include all compositions 
belonging to the sciences, and all investigations for the 
purpose of finding the truth. Its style should be the 
plain, or the neat ; and the utmost attention should be 
given to the order of the subjects, and to the arrange- 
ment of their parts. According to a German defini- 
tion, " Philosophy is a systematic arrangement of 
facts." (Book I., Prop, xi., and xii.) 

7. Philosophical writings include Essays, Treatises, 
Eeviews, Dissertations, or Disquisitions, Tracts, Theses. 

a. Treatise is applied to a complete or entire work on any subject. 
Thus, we have a Treatise on Surveying, Geometry, etc. 

5. An Essay is a short treatise, and is often applied to a production, 
which the author supposes may be incorrect. 

c. A Review is a statement of the plan, and style, of a written pro- 
duction, together with specimen extracts and a criticism of it. 

d. A Dissertation or Disquisition is a short treatise, setting before the 
reader the different views entertained concerning a disputed subject. 

e. A Tract is a short treatise on some special point, to which it is en- 
tirely devoted. 

f. A Thesis is a proposition or statement, concerning which the 
writer challenges a discussion. It is also applied to short essays, written 
to test the knowledge and skill of the writer. 

8 . Fictitious, or Imaginative Writings include those, 
in which all the scenes, persons, and events, are purely 
the result of the imagination ; and also those, which 
are founded on real events, and in which the persons, 
and conversations only are fictitious » 



Prop. 6.] DRAMATIC WRITINGS. 369 

No species of composition has been so popular as the Fictitious, for, 
strange as it may appear, it includes by far the greater portion of all 
that has ever been written. It is alike useful for instruction, for admoni- 
tion, for reproof, and for amusement. By its aid, character may be ex- 
hibited more truly; human emotions and passions represented more 
vividly ; and the consequences of virtue, or of vice portrayed more ef- 
fectively, than by any presentation of the reality, except the writer be 
inspired. It admits all varieties of style, every degree of ornament, 
and is equally suitable for poetry, or for prose. 

9. Fictitious Writings include Novels, Allegories, 
Tales, Parables, Fables, &c. A particular description 
of which is not needed. 

10. Dramatic Writing is a species of Fictitious 
composition, in which the whole narrative is told by 
different characters, who are represented as acting and 
speaking, and are called the Dramatis Personce. 

When written in poetry, it differs from an Epic poem, in that the 
author does not appear in it as a narrator, as he partly does in an epic. 

The Drama has always been a favorite kind of composition, but it 
has never been productive of good results in any degree commensurate 
with its capacity to produce them. It is now a great power perverted ; 
when it shall be restored to its true office — to teach men wisdom, and 
virtue — it will be one of the most effective modes of teaching. 

1 1 . Dramatic Writings are of two kinds ; Tragedy 
and Comedy. 

a. Tragedy represents great characters and events, and terminates in 
some fatal catastrophe, creating grief, and terror in the mind of the be- 
holder. 

b. Comedy represents some pleasing, or amusing characters and events, 
and always terminates happily. 

IS. Dramas are subdivided into Acts, of which, as 
a general rule, there should not be less than three, or 
more than five. 

a. The Acts are divided into scenes, which assist in producing in the 
mind of the spectator, what is called, The three Unities ; first. Unity of 
action, or an impression that only one leading or great transaction is 
presented ; second, Unity of time, or the impression that the events all 

16* 



370 ORATORICAL WRITINGS. [Book V. 

occurred about the same time ; and, third, Unity of place, or an impres- 
sion that all the events occurred in the same vicinity. Like the Epic, 
the Drama has its plot, management, machinery, and completion. 

b. A little Drama, mainly intended as an opportunity to exhibit 
scenes, and to entertain with fine music, is called a Melodrama ; if of a 
comic character, it is called a Burletta ; if it mix things high and low, 
a Burlesque. 

c. A short comedy is called a Farce. It is presented after a tragedy, 
and hence, is often called an Afterpiece. 

13. A part of a drama, in which only one actor ap- 
pears and speaks, is called a Monologue, or Soliloquy. 
If it be spoken as introductory to the play, it is called 
a Prologue ; if spoken at the close of the play, an 
Epilogue. 

A conversation between two persons is called a Dialogue. 

14. Oratorical Compositions include such as are 
designed to be spoken or read before assemblies, and 
are generally known as, Orations, Addresses, Lectures, 
Pleas, Sermons, Discourses, &c. 

a. The ancients divided Oratorical compositions into three kinds ; 
the Demonstrative, the Deliberative, and the Judicial. The moderns 
divide them into Eloquence of Popular Assemblies, of the Bar, and of 
the Pulpit. We see no natural reason for any of these divisions. 

15. A regular Oratorical effort may be considered 
in six parts ; first, the Exordium or Introduction ; sec- 
ond, the Statement and the Division of the subject ; 
third, the Narration or Explication ; fourth, the Rea- 
soning or Arguments ; fifth, the Pathetic Part ; and 
sixth, the Conclusion or Peroration. 

This order of arranging the parts is not always followed ; nor are all 
the parts themselves used in every address. 

First. The Introduction or Exordium is mainly designed 
to secure the good-will, to excite the attention, and to remove 
any prejudices, which may exist in the minds of those ad- 
dressed. 



Prop. 6.] RULES FOR INTRODUCTIONS. 371 

a. As a general thing, the good-will of an audience is already secured 
toward the speaker, who has been previously designated as the orator, 
lecturer, or preacher. Whenever this may be fairly presumed, nothing 
more is needed. When a speaker is presented unexpectedly to the 
audience, the case may be different, and a modest, brief excuse for oc- 
cupying the time may be given. 

6. In most instances, the hearers give a ready attention to a new 
speaker ; when this is the case, much is lost by those introductory re- 
marks, which many use merely from habit, or vanity. 

e. When prejudices do exist in the minds of those addressed, they 
should be removed in the introduction, unless the speaker feels sure of 
being able to meet them in the subsequent parts. 

Caution. — Nothing tires an audience more, or disgusts it sooner 
than a useless introduction. Hence, having considered your introduc- 
tion, next consider whether or not the whole, or a greater part may be 
omitted ; and omit, first, all that you see may be spared ; second, all, 
concerning the necessity of which, you entertain a doubt. Demosthenes 
used very short introductions, or none at all ; Cicero's were more lengthy ; 
in the Bible, very few are used. When you do use them, observe the 
following ;-— 

Rules for Introductions. 

1. The Introduction should be easy and natural. 

In order to appear natural, an introduction should appear to grow 
out of the subject ; hence, its composition may be deferred until the rest 
of the speech has been arranged. A common fault with introductions 
is, that very many begin to talk about themselves, instead of the real 
subject, without seeming to observe that nothing could be more unin- 
teresting to their hearers. Cicero says, "When I have planned and 
digested all the materials, lastly it is my habit to think with what intro- 
duction I shall begin. For, whenever I have attempted to frame the 
introduction first, nothing has ever occurred to me for that purpose, 
except it was foreign, trifling, or vulgar." 

2. The character and length of the introduction should be 
suited to the discourse that is to follow. 

There is a fitness in all things. Nothing could be more absurd, 
than a high sounding introduction to a trivial discourse ; or a sprightly 
introduction to a funeral sermon. If it be too lengthy, the audience 
may feel that " The mountain labored, and brought forth a ridiculously 
little mouse. " 



372 RULES FOR INTRODUCTIONS, [Book V, 

3. Let your introduction be modest and unassuming. 

An audience comprises many elements in which it is consciously 
superior to any one individual, and hence not only should the introduc- 
tion itself be modest, but every look, gesture, attitude, and tone of the 
speaker, should seem to acknowledge the superiority so far as may be 
done without sacrificing the speaker's own consciousness of self-respect, 
which, when properly maintained, serves to enhance the value of the 
respect, and deference, which he shows to his audience. There are 
occasions, however, on which boldness is not only admissible, but is 
absolutely required ; as, in defence of human rights, virtue, innocence ; 
at such times let the speaker be bold, if need be, even to martyrdom. 

4. Make special efforts to have your expressions correct 
in every point. 

This is necessary in all parts of a discourse, but especially in the 
beginning, when the mind of the hearer is less occupied, and so more 
free to criticise the speaker's style, and manner, which for this reason 
should have, " A correct plainness, and an elegant simplicity, so that it 
shall seem to be presented accurately rather than craftily." 

5. Let your introduction be calmly earnest. On the one 
hand, avoid the appearance of Ustlessness, and on the other, 
the appearance of too much vehemence. 

Naturally emotions are excited as the discourse is carried forward ; 
but there may be occasions, when the bare mention of the subject will 
be sufficient to arouse the deepest feeling. 

6. Do not in the introduction anticipate any of the argu- 
ments, or statements of the subsequent parts. 

The reason of this rule is, that, if stated in the preface, the charm of 
novelty is lost ; and, beside, the impression of a repetition is produced 
in the mind of the hearer. 

Second. The Statement and the Division of the subject. 
The statement or enunciation of the subject should be distinct 
and clear. For the Division of the subject see the Rules for 
Division or Classification on the sixty-ninth page. 

In philosophical addresses, it is generally best to announce the divis- 
ions or parts of the discourse ; but, in popular addresses, it gives the 
appearance of too much stiffness and formality. Whether the divisions 
be stated, or not, care should be taken by the speaker to follow out a 
well arranged classification, so that those, who do observe* may dis- 



Prop. 6.] NARRATION — REASONING — RULES. 373 

cover his plan, and thus be enabled to understand and remember the 
discourse. 

Third. The Narration or statement of the circumstances 
of the case, and the Explication or unfolding of the princi- 
ples and rules involved in it. These illustrate the state or 
condition of affrirs, and enable the hearers to appreciate the 
subsequent reasoning more easily ; hence, they should be as 
clear, concise, and truthful as possible. 

Fourth. The Reasonings or Arguments are intended to 
convince the hearers that some proposition is true, right, and 
good, or the opposite ; and, to lead them to adopt a certain 
course of action in regard to it. 

a. When the arguments are advanced before the statement of the 
proposition is made, the speaker is said to reason Analytically; when 
the statement precedes the arguments, he is said to reason Synthetically. 
(pp. 61, 62.) 

Rules for Eeasonings or Arguments. 

1. Make a proper selection of your arguments ; first, as 
to fitness or strength ; and second, as to their number. 

Some arguments may be true in themselves, and yet it may be in- 

'' judicious to present them, because of some association connected with 

them ; others may be weak, or frivolous, etc. Too many arguments 

should not be presented at once. It is a safe rule, to present no more 

arguments, than suffice to produce conviction. 

2. Arrange your arguments according to the nature, and 
according to the strength of each. 

a. According to nature or kind, we have three classes of Reasons or 
Arguments ; first, those which show that a statement or proposition is 
true or false ; second, those which show that the thing proposed is right 
or wrong ; and third, those which show that the thing proposed is profit- 
able or unprofitable. 

b. In arranging according to the strength of the arguments, we are 
governed by the relative force of the arguments themselves. If the 
arguments vary in strength, arrange those of each class so that each 
shall be stronger than its predecessor, thus making your reasoning 
climacteric. 

If only two be strong, place one of them first, and the other last ; 
making the weaker ones intermediate. 



374 PATHETIC — RULES. [Book V. 

If on y one be decidedly strong, place it first 

If all be strong, present them as distinctly as possible ; but, if all be 
weak, present them as compactly as possible. 

Fifth. The Pathetic or Appeals to the Passions is the ad- 
dress to feelings in order to produce action. 

Mankind are convinced by appeals to the reason and judgment, but 
they are moved to action by appeals to the feelings, or passions, because 
these are the main-springs of human actions. 

Rules for the Pathetic or Appeals to Passions. 

1. Consider first, whether the subject admits of an ap- 
peal ; and second, the place, or part in the discourse, at 
which it should be made. 

The hearers must feel that an appeal is both proper and well-timed, 
or they may be disgusted by its introduction. 

2. Introduce a pathetic appeal without previous notice to 
the hearer. 

The more naturally and easily an appeal to the feelings is brought 
into a discourse, the more acceptable and efficacious it will be. 

3. Be sure to distinguish between an argument to show 
your hearers that they ought to be moved, and an appeal to 
their feelings. 

The argument is merely a preparative, the appeal is the thing itself. 
" To every emotion or passion, nature has adapted a set of correspond- 
ing objects ; and, without setting these before the mind, it is not in the 
power of any orator to raise that emotion. I am warmed with grati- 
tude, I am touched with compassion, not when a speaker shows me 
that these are noble dispositions, and that it is my duty to feel them ; 
or when he exclaims against me for my coldness and indifference. All 
this time, he is speaking only to my reason, or conscience. He must 
describe the kindness and tenderness of my friend ; he must set before 
me the distress suffered by the person, for whom, he would interest 
me ; then, and not until then, my heart begins to be touched, my grati- 
tude, or my compassion begins to flow." 

4. Never attempt to move others, while you yourself are 
unmoved. 

Nothing, save the genuine feeling, can suggest the thoughts suitable 
to affect the feelings of others. Hence, the necessity that the narrator 



Prop. 6.] CONCLUSION — RULES. 375 

should mingle much with his fellow-beings, and should always cultivate 
feelings of real sympathy with their distresses. " The internal emotion 
of the speaker adds a pathos to his words, his looks, his gestures, and 
to his whole manner, which exerts a power almost irresistible over 
those in his presence. " 

5. Study carefully the language, utterance, attitudes, and, 
gestures of the passions. 

In doing this, we must observe closely the language, and conduct 
of those affected by any passion or emotion. The language of passion 
is loud, strong, and varied ; the actions quick, and violent ; the head is 
now thrown back, now sidewise, and now thrust forward. The lan- 
guage of grief is low, weak, and monotonous ; the movements slow and 
irregular ; the head and body are bent forward ; — " bowed down with 
grief." 

6. Do not attempt to introduce any thing of a nature for- 
eign to the pathetic in this part of your discourse ; above 
all, beware of all attempts to reason here. Nothing sooner 
extinguishes pathos. 

7. Do not try to keep up the pathetic too long in regard to 
the same idea. 

These emotions are too violent to be lasting; and hence, having 
been duly excited, and indulged, it is proper that the feelings be per- 
mitted to subside. In doing this, glide into a less exciting train, of 
thought, as quietly, and smoothly as possible. 

Sixth. The Conclusion or Peroration is the passage, which 
prepares the minds of the hearers for the end of the discourse. 

There is a certain note in music, called the Leading or Preparatory 
note, because it leads to a termination, or prepares the ear for the re- 
ception of the final note of a strain. So, in a train of thought, there 
are certain leading or preparatory ideas, which prepare the mind for the 
cadence. Sometimes, it is the pathetic part ; sometimes, the summing 
up of the arguments ; and sometimes, it is an inference drawn from the 
whole discourse. 

Rules for a Conclusion. 

1. Stop when you are through, but not too suddenly. 

There is always one good point, at which to stop. If this be passed 
the difficulty of finding another is increased, and much of the grace of 
the discourse is lost. 



376 BEADING OK DELIVERY. [Book V. 

2. Never notify your hearers more than once, that you in- 
tend to stop. 

We have known speakers to hang on to a subject after the uneasi- 
ness of the audience had become so apparent, that the speaker deemed 
it necessary to attempt a compromise by promising to stop in a little 
while. Others excite this feeling by a " lastly" followed by "in con- 
clusion," and then ending only after a "finally" but to the great relief 
of the audience. " We should endeavor to go off with a good grace ; 
not to end with a languishing, and drawling sentence ; but to close 
with dignity and spirit, that we may leave the minds of the hearers 
warm ; and dismiss them with a favorable impression of the subject, 
and of the speaker." 



PROPOSITION SEVENTH. 

1 . Reading or Delivery includes all utterances of 
words. It may be considered as to the Reading Ap- 
paratus, the Management of the voice, and the Gestures. 

2. The Reading Apparatus especially includes the 
walls of the chest, the lungs, the windpipe, and the 
mouth. 

a. The Walls of the Chest are composed of the breast-bone, the ribs, 
and the upper part of the bones of the back, together with the ligaments - 
that unite, the muscles that move, and the skin that covers them. 

The walls of the chest by rising cause the inflation of the lungs with 
air, and by falling again cause its expulsion from the lungs. 

b. The Lungs are minute air-cells, which serve the purposes of bel- 
lows in supplying air to the organs, used in producing sounds. 

Caution— -Very few persons breath correctly ; perhaps, not more than 
one in fifty! The general fault is, breathing too frequently, or inhaling 
too little breath at each inspiration. To remedy this, before dressing in 
the morning, raise the arms above the shoulders, and draw in as deep 
and full breathings as possible. This at first will cause giddiness, if 
your previous mode of breathing has not been correct. After resting, 
try it again. Try it every day. The lungs need this air-bath more, if 
possible, than the face and hands need the water-bath. Breathing in 
this way, when you feel disposed to cough, will very soon " cure the 
cold ;" that dreadful pioneer of Consumption. 



Prop. 7.] MANAGEMENT OF THE VOICE. 377 

c. The Windpipe contains the muscles, on which the air in its out- 
ward passage produces the sounds. 

Note. — Sound% except in ventriloquism, can be produced only- 
while the air is entering the lungs. Stuttering is caused by trying to 
speak while inhaling the breath. If a stutterer be cautioned not to at- 
tempt to speak while inhaling ; or, to breath out when he wishes to 
speak, the worst case may be cured in a few hours. 

The muscles, in the upper part of the windpipe and in the back por- 
tion of the mouth, produce the sounds, or tones, and are called the Or- 
gans of Voice. (See p. 192, § 10.) 

The lips, teeth, tongue, and forward portion of the mouth are called 
the Organs of Speech. By them the sounds are divided into shorter por- 
tions representing words. (See p. 192, § 12.) 

In order to read well, great pains should be taken to secure a health- 
ful and proper development of the Reading Apparatus. As an induce- 
ment to this, it should be borne in mind, that every exercise connected 
with reading, when properly directed, is healthful and life-giving. 

3. The Management of the Voice refers to the Use 
of the Tones, to the Movements or Cadences, to the 
Emphases, and to the Accents, as these are affected by 
the sentiment expressed. 

First. The Tones of the voice comprise its key or pitch, 
rhythm, and force. 

a. The general varieties of the key or pitch are the Historic or 
Natural, the Emotional, and the Passionate. 

I. The Historic Key is used in ordinary intercourse, or at least in 
such intercourse, as that which persons use without unusual excitement, 
or unusual listlessness. 

1. Historic Key. It is a very fine day, Mrs. Brown ! 

II. The Key of the Emotions is used when persons are somewhat in 
earnest, yet without being very much excited. 

a. When the emotions are unpleasant, or painful, the key is lower 
than the Historic ; and hence, is called the Grave Key. 

2. Grave Key. My brother is very sick, and we fear he 
will die. 

b. When the emotions are pleasant, or cheerful, the key is raised 
above the Historic, and is called the Gag Keg. 

3. Gay Key. Come, let us have some merry sport. 



378 KEY OF THE PASSIONS. [Book V. 

III. The Key of the Passions is used, when the speaker is very much 
aroused, or excited. 

The difference between an emotion and a passion, as here used, is 
that an emotion is an excited feeling ; while a passion is a feeling still 
more excited. According to this, the emotions and passions differ in 
degree, not in quality. A passion is an intensified emotion. 

a. When the passion is of a painful, or severe kind, the key is be- 
low the Historic, and sometimes even lower than the Grave. If not 
lower, it is always stronger ; hence, it is called the Intensified Grave 
Key. 

4. Intensified Grave Key, " Speak of Mortimer ? 
Zounds ! I will speak of him ; and let my soul 
Want mercy, if I do not join with him ; 

Yea, on his part, I'll empty all these veins, 

And shed my dear blood, drop by drop, i' the dust, 

But I will lift this down-trod Mortimer 

As high i' the air, as this unthankful king — 

As this ingrate and cankered Bolingbroke." 

b. When the Passion is joyous, the key is above the Historic and 
more intensified than the Gay Key ; hence, it is called the Intensified 
Gay Key. 

5. Intensified Gay Key. Ha ! ha ! ha ! A capital joke ! 
Capital ! capital ! Now give us another ; T faith ! we're well 
met to-night, and a good time we'll have of it ! 

Rule. A Primary sentence should be read in the hey re- 
quired by its sentiment ; its secondary ', in a hey slightly below ; 
its sub-secondary, 'in a hey a trifle below the secondary, &c. 
(See p. 100, Prop, vi.) 

4. The first quality of good Reading is that, which 
causes it to be fully and distinctly understood ; the 
second is that, it instructs and moves the hearer. 

5. In order to be understood, the speaker must at- 
tend to four things ; loudness of voice, distinctness, 
slowness, and propriety of pronunciation, 

a. In order to speak loud, it is only necessary to increase the force 
of the voice, not to raise its pitch. 



Prop. 7.] GESTURE — FINALLY. 379 

b. Distinctness refers to the enunciation of the words, and to the ar- 
ticulation of the letters and syllables. (See p. 194, § 26.) 

Words are badly enunciated, when they are spoken indistinctly, or 
when mispronounced. They are badly articulated, when their letters 
or syllables are improperly joined. 

c. The faults of most young speakers, or readers, are ; first, utter- 
ing the words with too great rapidity ; second, raising the pitch instead 
of adding force to the voice ; third, neglecting the emphases and accents. 

©. Gesture includes attitude, position, and the mo- 
tions of the hands. 

a. The Attitude should be erect, easy, and free. In this respect, 
those, who speak without notes, have the advantage of those, who use 
them. 

b. The Position should be taken at that point, which brings the most 
of the hearers before the speaker. The speaker may turn one quarter 
to the right, or to the left by bringing the right, or the left foot behind 
the other. Much change of place should be avoided if possible. 

c. The Gestures should be easy and free. Avoid vertical motions 
with the hands. Practise gestures before a looking-glass, and criticise 
yourself; practise them also before a friend, or before an association, 
whose object is mutual benefit in criticising each other. 

Let your dress be simple and neat. In addressing an audience, 
never wear gloves, if your hands are fit to be seen, and do not exhibit 
jewelry, unless you deal in it. 

Note. — It was a part of the original plan to introduce a full set of 
exercises in speaking, which subsequent reflection led us to omit ; not 
because we deemed them unimportant, but because such exercises may 
be found in most of the numerous School-Readers. The pupils should 
be thoroughly and frequently exercised in them. 

Finally. Study Nature. Observe the manner, in which 
persons act and speak in daily life. The Book of Nature is 
to one, who can read it, the great and true source of a knowl- 
edge of human actions and utterances. The Book of Grace 
is the best source, whence you can draw instruction as to the 
nature of the human soul, and the influences, which develop 
and form human character. To understand others, however, 
you must begin with studying yourself — your own intellects; 
for as these act, so you must assume are the actions of all 
other men's intellects produced. 



380 THINKING AND LANGUAGE. [Book V. 

We close the subject of Sentential Language, having come 
again to the place, whence we started ; namely, knowing some- 
thing you will need begin to think ; thinking, you will desire 
to communicate ; communicating, you will need the ability to 
use language ; using language, you will be impelled to gain 
more knowledge ; and gaining more knowledge, you will seek 
and also find new facilities and new beauties in the divine 
gift of language ; and thus, each shall only and forever lead 
and assist you while attempting new conquests in the other. 
But in addition to this, let us say, be not satisfied with that 
improvement, which stops with yourself; as ye have freely 
received, so freely give, assured that " He that watereth 
others shall be watered also himself." 



Suggestion. In the Examination of the Extracts for Exercise, it will 
be well to observe the following order ; — 

1. Taken in periods. Give the Logical, Rhetorical, and Grammati- 
cal Analyses. 

2. Taken as a whole. Is it plain or figurative language ? what figures 
are used ? 

3. Is it pleasing, or displeasing ; and why is it so ? 

4. Examine its idioms and style. (See p. 331.) 

5. Are the words and sentences perspicuous ? 

6. Is it plain, or poetic in sentiment % Prose or verse ? What kind ? 

7. Is it epistolary, historical, philosophical, fictitious, dramatic, or 
oratorical ? What kind of — ? 

8. How should it be read ? What is the key, movement, &c. ? 

Students should be encouraged to express their opinions freely, and 
should be required to give reasons for the opinions expressed. By this 
means, attention may be drawn to the composition of others, and the 
foundation laid for forming a correct taste and a good style. 



EXTRACTS FOR EXERCISE. 



Historic. — Natural Key, Plain Style, (p. 333.) 
1. Genius and Labor. — R. Bonner. 

Alexander Hamilton once said to an intimate friend — " Men 
give me some credit for genius. All the genius that I have lies 
just in this. When I have a subject in hand I study it profound- 
ly. Day and night it is before me. I explore it in all its bear- 
ings. My mind becomes pervaded with it. Then the effort 
which I make is what people are pleased to call the fruit of 
genius. It is the fruit of labor and of thought." 

Mr. Webster once replied to a gentleman, who pressed him to 
speak on a subject of great importance ; " The subject interests 
me deeply, but I have not time. There, sir," pointing to a huge 
pile of letters on his table, " is a pile of unanswered letters, to 
which I must reply before the close of the session [which was 
then three days off]. I have not time to master the subject so 
as to do it justice." — " But, Mr. Webster, a few words from you 
would do much to awaken public attention to it." — " If there be 
such weight in my words as you represent, it is because I do not 
allow myself to speak on any subject until I have imbued my 
mind with it." 

Demosthenes was once urged to speak on a great and sudden 
emergency. "I am not prepared," said he, and obstinately re- 
fused. 

Hundreds have attempted the definition of genius. When 
Sir Isaac Newton was asked for it, he replied, "Patience and 
work." The answer was eminently characteristic, and whether 
correct or not, it is pregnant with meaning, and affords large 
food for thought. Sir Isaac would spend whole months m the 
examination of a single numerical relation, or the bearings of an 
angle of incidence, and if he was not then perfectly satisfied, 
other months were consumed in the same studies. Then, when 
he had grasped fact after fact in an iron hand, and on them built 
up his sublime theory of the physical universe, it is no wonder 
that, with a humility of intellect, which, alike with his power 
of discovery, was the wonder of his age, he attributed the mas- 
sive laurels encircling his broad forehead, to "Patience." 



882 MY MOTHER'S GRAVE. [Book V. 

Emotional. — Beginning in the historic, this extract runs through the 
key of the emotions into the key of the passions. 

2. My Mother's Grave. — W. Irving. 

I sought the village church. It is an old, low edifice, of gray 
stone, on the brow of a small hill, looking over fertile fields to- 
wards where the proud towers of Warwick Castle lift them- 
selves against the distant horizon. 

A part of the churchyard is shaded by large trees. Under one 
of them my mother lay buried. You have no doubt thought me 
a light, heartless being. I thought myself so ; but there are mo- 
ments of adversity, which let us into some feelings of our nature 
to which we might otherwise remain perpetual strangers. 

I sought my mother's grave ; the weeds were already matted 
over it, and the tombstone was half hid among nettles. I cleared 
them away, and they stung my hands ; but I was heedless of the 
pain, for my heart ached too severely. I sat down on the grave, 
and read over and over again the epitaph on the stone. 

It was simple, — but it was true. I had written it myself. I 
had tried to write a poetical epitaph, but in vain ; my feelings 
refused to utter themselves in rhyme. My heart had been 
gradually rilling during my lonely wanderings; it was now 
charged to the brim, and overflowed. I sunk upon the grave, 
and buried my face in the tall grass, and wept like a child. Yes, 
I wept in manhood upon the grave, as I had in infancy upon the 
bosom of my mother. 

Alas ! how little do we appreciate a mother's tenderness while 
she is living ! How heedless are we in youth of all her anxieties 
and kindness ! But when she is dead and gone ; when the cares 
and coldness of the world come withering to our hearts ; when 
we learn how hard it is to find true sympathy, how few love us 
for ourselves, how few will befriend us in our misfortunes — 
then it is that we think of the mother we have lost. 

It is true I had always loved my mother, even in my most 
heedless days ; but I felt how inconsiderate and ineffectual had 
been my love. My heart melted as I retraced the days of in- 
fancy, when I was led by a mother's hand, and rocked to sleep 
in a mother's arms, and was without care and sorrow. " my 
mother !" exclaimed I, burying my face again in the grass of the 
grave, " that I were once more by your side, sleeping never 
to wake again on the cares and troubles of this world !" 



Book V.] IRVING. 383 

I am not naturally of a morbid temperament, and the violence 
of my emotion gradually exhausted itself. It was a hearty, 
honest, natural discharge of grief, which had been slowly accumu- 
lating, and the discharge gave me wonderful relief. I rose from 
the grave as if I had been offering up a sacrifice, and I felt as if 
that sacrifice had been accepted. 

I sat down again on the grass, and plucked, one by one, the 
weeds from her grave ; the tears trickled more slowly down my 
cheeks, and ceased to be bitter. It was a comfort to think that 
she had died before sorrow and poverty came upon her child, 
and before all his great expectations were blasted. 

I leaned my cheek upon my hand, and looked upon the land- 
scape. Its quiet beauty soothed me. The whistle of a peasant 
from an adjoining field came cheerily to my ear. I seemed to 
respire hope and comfort with the free air, that whispered through 
the leaves, and played lightly with my hair, and dried the tears 
upon my cheek. 

A lark, rising from the field before me, and leaving, as it were, 
a stream of song behind him as he rose, lifted my fancy with 
him. He hovered in the air just above the place where the 
towers of Warwick Castle marked the horizon, and seemed as 
if fluttering with delight at his own melody. "Surely/' thought 
I, "if there was such a thing as transmigration of souls, this 
might be taken for some poet let loose from earth, but still revel- 
ling in song, and carolling about fair fields and lordly towers." 

At this moment, the long- forgot ten feeling of poetry rose with- 
in me. A thought sprung at once into my mind. " I will be- 
come an author!'' said I. "I have hitherto indulged in poetry 
as a pleasure, and it has brought me nothing but pain ; let me try 
what it will do when I cultivate it with devotion as a pursuit." 

The resolution thus suddenly roused within me heaved a load 
from my heart. I felt a confidence in it, from the very place 
where it was formed. It seemed as though my mother's spirit 
whispered it to me from the grave. " I will henceforth," said I, 
" endeavor to act as if she were witness of my actions ; I will 
endeavor to acquit myself in such a manner, that, when I revisit 
her grave, there may at least be no compunctious bitterness in 
my tears." 



384 CATALINE — CROLY. [Book V. 

Passionate. — Intensified Grave Key. Neat style. 
3. Scene in the Roman Senate. — Croly. 

Cicero. Fathers of Rome ! If man can be convinced 
By proof, as clear as daylight, here it is ! 
Look on these letters ! Here is a deep-laid plot 
To wreck the provinces ; a solemn league, 
Made with all form and circumstance. The time 
Is desperate ; all the slaves are up ; Rome shakes ! 
The heavens alone can tell how near our graves 
"We stand, ev'n here ! The name of Cataline 
Is foremost in their league. He was their king. 
Tried and convicted traitor ! Go from Rome ! 

Cataline. [Haughtily rising.] Come, consecrated lictors, 
from your thrones ; [To the Senate, 

Fling down your sceptres ; take the rod and axe, 
And make the murder as you make the law — 
Cicero. [Interrupting.] Give up the record of his banishment. 
[The Officer gives it to the Consul in the chair.] 

Cataline. [Indignantly.] Banished from Rome ! What's 
banished, but set free 
From daily contact of the things I loathe ? 
" Tried and convicted traitor !" Who says this ? 
Who '11 prove it, at his peril, on my head ? 
Banished ! I thank you for it. It breaks my chain ! 
I held some slack allegiance till this hour, 
But now my sword 's my own. Smile on, my lords ! 
I scorn to count what feelings, withered hopes, 
Strong provocations, bitter, burning wrongs, 
I have within my heart's hot cells shut up, 
To leave you in your lazy dignities. 
But here I stand and scoff you ; here, I fling 
Hatred and full defiance in your face. 
Your Consul 's merciful. For this, all thanks. 
He dares not touch a hair of Cataline ! 

[The Consul reads.] "Lucius Sergius Cataline; by the de- 
cree of the Senate, you are declared an enemy and alien to the 
state, and banishedyrom the territory of the Commonwealth." 

The Consul. Lictors, drive the traitor from the temple ! 

Cataline. [Furious.] " Traitor !" I go, but I return. This 
—trial ! 



Book V.] TROUBLES — BEECHER. 385 

Here I devote your Senate ! I 've had wrongs 
To stir a fever in the blood of age, 
Or make the infant's sinews strong as steel. 
This day 's the birth of sorrows ! this hour's work 
Will breed proscriptions. Look to your hearths, my lords! 
For there, henceforth shall sit, for household gods, 
^hapes hot from Tartarus ! all shames and crimes ! 
Wan Treachery, with his thirsty dagger drawn; 
Suspicion, poisoning his brother's cup ; 
Naked Rebellion, with the torch and axe, 
Making his wild sport of your blazing thrones; 
Till Anarchy comes down on you like Night, 
And Massacre seals Rome's eternal grave ! 

[The Senators rise in tumult and cry out ; 
Go, enemy and parricide, from Rome — 

Cicero. Expel him, lictors ! Clear the Senate House ! 

[They surround him, 

Cataline. [Struggling through them.] I go, but not to leap 
the gulf alone. 
I go ; but when I come, '* will be the burst 
Of ocean in the earthquake ; rolling back 
In swift and mountainous ruin. Fare you well ! 
You build my funeral-pile, but your best blood 
Shall quench its flame. Back, slaves! I will return! 



Historic. — Somewhat approaching the Gay Key. 

4. Troubles. — By H. W. Beecher. 

We should brave troubles, as the New England schoolboy 
braves winter. The school is a mile away over the hill, yet he 
lingers not by the fire, but with his books slung over his shoulders, 
and his cap tied closely under his chin, he sets forth. to face the 
storm. And when he reaches the topmost ridge, where the 
powdered snow lies in drifts, and the north wind comes .keen 
and biting, does he shrink and cower down beneath the fences, 
'■ or run into the nearest house to warm himself? No ; he buttons 
up his coat and rejoices to defy the blast, and tosses the snow 
wreathes with his foot, and so, erect and fearless, with strong 
heart and ruddy cheek, he goes on to his place at school. Now, 
when the fierce winds of adversity blow over you, and your life's 

17 



886 JACKEY JESSAMY, [Book V. 

summer lies buried beneath frost and snow, do not linger in- 
active, or sink cowardly down by the way? or turn aside from 
your course for momentary warmth and shelter, but with stout 
heart and firm step, go f rward in God's strength to vanquish 
trouble and to bid defiance to disaster. If there is ever a time 
to be ambitious, it is not when ambition is easy, but when it is 
hard. Fight in darkness ; fight when you are down ; die hard, 
and you will not die at all. That gelatinous man, whose bones 
are pulp — that man is a coward. 



Historic. — Nearly up to the Gay Key, 

5. Jackey Jess amy. — Anonymous. 

If 1 were little Jackey Jessamy, ten years old last Candle- 
mas, with a flaxen poll, rosy cheeks, and a frilled shirtneck ; and 
if, having mastered pot-hooks and strokes, I had made my way 
into joined-hand, — with this pen, from this ink, on this paper, 
I should be inditing, " Fortune favors the brave;" " Custom is 
second nature ;" " Be wise betimes, shun darling crimes," — with 
other saws and maxims equally elegant and edifying, — which 
no time, no space, no circumstance could ever blot out from the 
tablet of memory, though for the time present, so far from im- 
proving either my morals or my handwriting by the exercise, I 
might be playing truant in my head, and whipping a top or 
striking a ball with all my heart. 

But if I were Jackey's mamma, and through means of this 
apparatus were corresponding with his schoolmaster on the best 
method of spoiling the dear boy, there is no doubt that, with due 
maternal tenderness, I would expatiate upon his naturally quick 
parts, and give special warning that these should not be blunted 
by too much study ; for reading wears the eyes, writing soils the 
fingers, and arithmetic wrinkles the forehead : but I would rec- 
ommend the utmost care of his person, the free indulgence of 
his gingerbread appetite, and the most conscientious neglect of 
his morals. 

Ah, then, a hundred to one but this very letter would be the 
death-warrant to the poor lad's best interests ; and this, being 
duly executed by an obsequious teacher, would send the boy from 
school with as little head as the fondest parent could desire to 
see on his heir apparent' s shoulders, and well fitted to maintain 
the family imbecility, and transmit it unimpaired to posterity. 



Book: V.] GAY KEY IN CHORUS. 387 

6. Sprites at the Windmill. — Anonymous. 

Ha ! ha ! here we are, and the moon has not set, 
And the mossy old windmill is standing here yet. 

The harvest is gathered, the summer has gone, 

And again we rejoice in the scent of the corn. 

Up all, to the wings now ! blow high or blow low, 

Round on the old windmill once more we will go ; 

And while the bright moon, which now lends us her beams, 

Is looking alone on the rocks and the streams, 

And gently the dews of the midnight distil, 

We will have one more ride on the wings of the mill. 

Stretch out, then, stretch out to the end of each wing, 
And send them all round with a good hearty swing ; 
Up and down — up and down — send them merrily round, 
Bear them down on that side from the sky to the ground. 
Now up ! send them up ! on this side let them fly, 
With a bound from the ground till they point to the sky, 
Now they crack ! never mind, they are used to the strain ; 
Up with them once more — now down with them again ! 

We love the clear breeze o'er the pine-covered hill, 

As it sings through the wings of the sturdy old mill ; 

There it comes ! now spring out to the end of each rail, 

And let each arm bend like a mast in a gale ; 

Round with them, round with them, the wind is too slow, 

Bear down altogether, halloo ! there, halloo ! 

Fill the hoppers below, heap them up till they choke, 

And then let the old stones fly round till they smoke ; 

Round, round, send them round with a merry good will, 

Ha ! ha ! we are back to the rattling old mill, 

And Ephraim, the miller, the drowsy old head, 

Who lies now at midnight asleep in his bed, 

Should he wake, would suppose, 

That because the wind blows, 
And for no other reason, around the mill goes. 
When at sunrise he comes, and our work he has found, 
How little he '11 know how his grist has been ground ; 
Then round, send it round, for our work must be done 
Ere old Father Ephraim appears with the sun. 



388 SPEITES AT THE MILL — IT SNOWS. [Book V. 

Ha ! ha ! a fresh breeze now comes over the hill, 
Each sail feels its breath ; now they stiffen and fill ! 
Now, now all is straining above and below, 
And round the quick circle we merrily go ; 
Round, round, and now hark to the musical tones 
That come quivering out from the whirling old stones. 

Halloo there ! rouse all ! ere the night watch is past, 
One more merry round let us have, and the last. 
To the ends of each arm ; and now pour in the corn, 
The daylight is coming, and we must be gone. 
Round with them ! ha ! ha ! how like willows they spring, 
And the sails go down skimming, like birds on the wing ! 
Rise all with them cheerily, then down let them come, 
And now hear the stones how they rumble and hum 

As they rapidly swing 

In its fire-circled ring, 
Each seems like a glad living creature to sing ! 
Hark, hark, to their song, how it gushes and swells, 
With sounds like the low, distant humming of bells! 
Once more, all together, now up from below ! 
There 's light in the east, we must go, we must go ! 

Up ! through the blue ether ! up, up, and away ! 

And now the old mill 

May go on if it will, 
Or fold up its wings for a while and be still. 



7. It Snows.— Mrs. S. J. Hale. 

"It snows!" cries the School-boy, "Hurrah !' s and his shout 

Is ringing through parlor and hall, 
While swift as the wing of a swallow, he 's out, 

And his playmates have answered his call ; 
It makes the heart leap but to witness their joy ; 

Proud wealth has no treasure, I trow, 
Like the rapture that throbs in the pulse of the boy, 

As he gathers his treasures of snow ; 
Then lay not the trappings of gold on thine heirs, 
While health, and the riches of nature, are theirs. 



Book V.] IT SNOWS. 389 

" It snows !" sighs the Imbecile, " Ah !" and his breath 

Comes heavy, as clogged with a weight ; 
While, from the aspect of nature in death, 

He turns to the blaze of his grate ; 
And nearer and nearer, his soft, cushioned chair 

Is wheeled toward the life-giving flame ; 
He dreads a chill puff of the snow- burdened air, 

Lest it wither his delicate frame ; 
! small is the pleasure existence can give, 
When the fear we shall die only proves that we live ! 

"It snows!'* cries the Traveller, "Ho!" and the word 

Has quickened his steed's lagging pace ; 
The wind rushes by, but its howl is unheard, 

Unfelt the sharp drift in his face ; 
For bright through the tempest his own home appeared, 

Aye, through leagues intervened he can see ; 
There 's the clear, glowing hearth, and the table prepared, 

And his wife with her babes at her knee ; 
Blest thought ! how it lightens the grief-laden hour, 
That those we love dearest are safe from its power ! 

"It snows !" cries the Belle, " Dear, how lucky !" and turns 

From her mirror to watch the flakes fall ; 
Like the first rose of summer, her dimpled cheek burns, 

While musing on sleigh-ride and ball ; 
There are visions of conquests, of splendor, and mirth, 

Floating over each drear winter's day ; 
But the tintings of hope, on this storm-beaten earth, 

Will melt like the snow-flakes away ; 
Turn, turn thee to Heaven, fair maiden, for bliss ; 
That world has a pure fount ne'er opened in this. 

" It snows !" cries the Widow, " God !" — and her sighs 

Have stifled the voice of her prayer; 
Its burden ye '11 read, in her tear-swollen eyes, 

On her cheek sunk with fasting and care. 
Tis night, and her fatherless ask her for bread, 

But " He gives the young ravens their food," 
And she trusts, till her dark hearth adds horror to dread, 

As she lays on her last chip of wood. 
Poor sufferer ! that sorrow thy God only knows ; 
'Tis a most bitter lot % be poor, when it snows ! 



390 LOOSE, OR FAULTY STYLE. [Book V. 



8. On Style. — J". K. Paulding. 

Style, a manner of writing ; title : pin of a dial ; the pistil of plants. 

Johnson. 
Style is. . . .style. — LinJcum Fidelum. 

Now I would Dot give a straw for either of the above defini- 
tions, though I think the latter is by far the most satisfactory ; 
and I do wish sincerely every modern numscull who takes 
hold of a subject he knows nothing about, would adopt honest 
Linkum's mode of explanation. Blair's Lectures on this article 
have not thrown a whit more light on the subject of my inqui- 
ries ; they puzzled me just as much as did the learned and labori- 
ous expositions and illustrations of the worthy professor of our 
college, in the middle of which I generally had the ill luck to 
fall asleep. 

This same word style, though but a diminutive word, assumes 
to itself more contradictions, and significations, and eccentricities, 
than any monosyllable in the language is legitimately entitled 
to. It is an arrant little humorist of a word, and full of whim- 
whams, which occasions me to like it hugely; but it puzzled me 
most wickedly on my first return from a long residence abroad, 
having crept into fashionable use during my absence ; and had it 
not been for friend Evergreen, and that thrifty sprig of knowledge, 
Jeremy Cockloft the younger, I should have remained to this day 
ignorant of its meaning. 

Though it would seem that the people of all countries are 
equally vehement in the pursuit of this phantom, style, yet in 
almost all of them there is a strange diversity in opinion as tc 
what constitutes its essence ; and every different class, like the 
pagan nations, adore it under a different form. In England, for 
instance, an honest cit packs up himself, his family, and his style, 
in a buggy or tim whisky, and rattles away on Sunday with his 
fair partner blooming beside him, like an eastern bride, and two 
chubby children squatting like Chinese images at his feet. A 
baronet requires a chariot and pair ; an earl must have a barouche- 
and-four ; but a duke — oh! a duke can not possibly lumber his 
style along under a coach-and-six, and half a score of footmen 
into the bargain. In China, a puissant mandarin loads at least 
three elephants with style ; and an overgrown sheep at the Cape 
of Good Hope trails along his tail and his style on a wheelbarrow. 
In Egypt, or at Constantinople, style consftts in the quantity of 



Book V.] THANKSGIVING. 391 

fur and fine clothes a lady can put on without danger of suffoca- 
tion ; here it is otherwise, and consists in the quantity she can 
put off without the risk of freezing. A Chinese lady is thought 
prodigal of her charms, if she exposes the tip of her nose, or the 
ends of her fingers to the ardent gaze of bystanders ; and I recol- 
lect that all Canton was in a buzz in consequence of the great 
belle, Miss Nangfous, peeping out of the window with her face 
uncovered ! Here the style is to show not only the face, but the 
neck, shoulders, etc. ; and a lady never presumes to hide them 
except when she is not at home, or not sufficiently undressed to 
see company. 

This style has ruined the peace and harmony of many a worthy- 
household ; for no sooner do they set up for style, but instantly 
all the honest old comfortable sans ceremonie furniture is dis- 
carded ; and you stalk cautiously about among the uncomfortable 
splendor of Grecian chairs, Egyptian tables, Turkey carpets, and 
Etruscan vases. This vast improvement in furniture demands 
an increase in the domestic establishment ; and a family that re- 
quired two or three servants for convenience, now employ half a 
dozen for style. 



9. Thanksgiving. — J. T. Buckingham. 

An anonymous modern writer has beautifully said, " There 
are moments in existence which comprise the power of years ; 
as thousands of roses are contained in a few drops of their essence." 
The remark is no more beautiful than just. I once witnessed an 
incident, which made me feel its truth, though long before the sen- 
timent itself was written. In one of the largest villages in the 
eastern part of Connecticut, a woman was left a widow with ten 
children, all but one of whom were under twenty years of age. 
The family had once enjoyed a competence, and looked forward 
to years of ease and plenty. Toward the close of the revolu- 
tionary war, the father, thinking to make a profitable specula- 
tion, disposed of a large and profitable stock in trade, and received 
in payment what, at the time was called cash, but which turned 
out shortly after to be worthless paper ; bills of the old " Con- 
tinental currency." These bills were laid up in his desk, and 
soon began to depreciate in value. The deterioration went on 
from day to day, and. in a few months the bubble burst ; and the 



S92 THAETKSGIYING — KEAT STYLE. [Book V. 

fund, which had been hoarded to educate a family, would not 
buy them a breakfast. At this moment the father died. 

I will not trace the history of this family through its days of 
destitution and poverty. It is sufficient to state that the children 
were scattered in various directions, and engaged in various em- 
ployments, till at length all were gone and the mother left alone, 
dependent on friends for a bedroom, and on the labor of her hands 
for her own subsistence ; a precarious dependence, for to other 
misfortunes had succeeded the loss of health. In process of time, 
©ne of the sons r having completed his apprenticeship, hired a 
house for his mother, and lived with her, while he followed the 
occupation of a shoemaker. Thanksgiving day came ; and with 
it, returned an opportunity to indulge in its peculiar rites, which 
they had not enjoyed for ten years. The two younger boys, who 
lived at a distance from each other and from the parent, came 
home to keep Thanksgiving. 

The festive preparations were completed. The table was 
spread. Around it stood a mother and three sons, who had not 
been assembJed together before within the remembrance of the 
youngest of the group. The grateful and pious mother lifted her 
heart and her voice to the widow's God, and uttered a blessing 
©n that kindness which had not broken the bruised reed, and that 
goodness which had remembered all her sorrows, and permitted 
her once more to see so many of her orphan . children assembled 
around her. Her expressions of gratitude were not finished, 
when the tide of affection and thanksgiving, which swelled the 
heart, overpowered the physical faculties. Her bosom heaved 
with strong convulsions, her utterance was choked, the lips could 
not relieve by words the emotions which filled the soul ; she 
faltered, and would have fallen, had not the elder son caught 
and sustained her in his arms. Tears, at length, came to her re- 
lief, and the earthquake of the soul was succeeded by those grate- 
ful and affectionate .sensations, which can find no parallel but in 
a mother's heart. 

It is more than forty years since this incident took place. The 
scene is now as fresh and bright to my imagination, as it was at 
the moment of its occurrence. Eternity can not obliterate its 
impression from my memory ; for that widow was my mother. 



10. Leave thy fatherless children, I will preserve them alive; 
and let thy widows trust in me. 



Book V.] ORATORICAL. 393 



11. Bunker Hill, — Kossuth. 

My voice shrinks from the task to mingle with the awful 
pathos of that majestic orator [pointing to the monument]. 
Silent like the grave, and yet melodious like the song of im- 
mortality upon the lips of the cherubim — a senseless cold granite, 
and yet warm with inspiration like a patriot's heart — immovable 
like the past, and yet stirring like the future, which never stops ; 
it looks like a prophet, and speaks like an oracle. And thus it 
speaks : — 

" The day I commemorate is the rod with which the hand of the Lord 
has opened the well of Liberty. Its waters will flow; every new drop 
of martyr blood will increase the tide. Despots may dam its flood, but 
never stop it. The higher its dam the higher the tide ; it will overflow 
or will break through. Bow, and adore, and hope." 

Such are the words which come to my ears, and I bow, I 
adore, I hope. 

In bowing, my eyes meet the soil of Bunker Hill — that awful 
opening scene of the eventful drama to which Lexington and 
Concord had been the preface. 

The spirit of the past rises before my eyes. I see Richard 
Gridley hastily planning the entrenchments. I hear the blunt 
sound of the pickaxe and spade in the hands of the patriot band. 
I hear the patrols say that u All is well." I see Knowlton raising 
his line of rail fence, upon which soon the guns will rest, that 
the bullets may prove to their message true. I see the tall com- 
manding form of Prescott marching leisurely around the parapet, 
inflaming the tired patriots with the classical words that those 
who had the merit of the labor should have the honor of the vic- 
tory. I see Asa Pollard fall, the first victim of that immortal 
day ; I see the chaplain praying over him ; and now the roaring 
of cannon from ships and from batteries, and the blaze of the 
burning town, and the thrice renewed storm and the persevering 
defence, till powder was gone and but stones remained ; and I see 
Warren telling Elbridge Gerry that it is sweet and fair to die for 
the fatherland ; I see him lingering in his retreat, and struck in 
the forehead, fall to the ground ; and Pomeroy, with his shatter- 
ed musket in his brave hand, complaining that he remained un- 
hurt when a Warren had to die ; and I see all the brave who fell 
unnamed, unnoticed, and unknown, the nameless corner-stones 
of American independence. 

IT* 



394 BUNKER HILL — KOSSUTH. [Book V. 

All the spirits of that most eventful victory, under the name 
of defeat — I see them all ; the eyes of my soul are familiar with 
the spirits of the martyrs of liberty. But those I see around me 
have no sad, ghostly look ; they bear no gushing wounds crying 
for revenge to the Almighty God ; the smile of eternal bliss is 
playing around their lips, and though dwellers of Heaven, they 
like to visit the place where their blood was spilt; it was not 
spilt in vain — their fatherland is free ; and there is a joy in that 
thought, adding ever new charm to the happiness of blessed 
souls. As the fabulous divinities of ancient Greece like to rest 
from the charms of Heaven on Mount 01ympus > so must the 
spirit of Warren like to rest on the top of this monument. 

Martyrs of my country ! how long will it yet be till a like joy 
will thrill through your departed souls ? when will the smile of 
that joy play around your lips ? how long will yet the gush of 
your wounds cry for revenge — your fatherland still bleeding, 
down-trodden, oppressed ? There is a sorrow in that thought, 
casting the gloom of sadness even over the bliss of Paradise. 

Almighty Father of mankind, let the day of thy mercy be not 
too far. 

Excuse my emotion, gentlemen. The associations of my ideas 
are natural. Your Bunker Hill and our Kapolna are twins— - 
both called defeats, and both eventful victories — both resulting 
in the declaration of an independence ; but yours acknowledged 
before it was achieved, and supported by foreign aid — ours not 
acknowledged even when achieved, and meeting foreign aggres- 
sion instead of aid. 

Well, past is past, and can not be changed — but the future is 
open yet — and often I have bowed before the recollections of this 
hallowed ground. I adore the Almighty with unfaltering hope. 
Part of my hope rests in the justice of Him who rules the uni- 
verse, and holds in his hands the destinies of mankind and of men. , 
My people's sufferings are recorded in the book of His eternal 
decrees, and the tears of my people numbered in his scale. I 
trust to Him. 



12. Izaak Walton — Died in 1685. 

Sweet rose, whose hue, angry and brave, bids the rash gazer 

wipe his eye, 
Thy root is ever in its grave, and thou must die. 



Book V.] HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 395 

13. Aunt Kindly. — Theodore Parker. 

Miss Kindly is aunt to every body, and has been so long that 
none remember to the contrary. The little children love her ; 
she helped their grandmothers to bridal ornaments threescore 
years ago. Nay, this boy's grandfather found his way to college 
through her pocket. Generations not her own rise up and call 
her blessed. To this man's father her patient toil gave the first 
start in life. That great fortune — when it was a seed she car- 
ried it in her hand. That wide river of reputation ran out of the 
cup her bounty filled. Now she is old ; very old. The little 
children, who cling about her, with open mouth and great round 
eyes, wonder that anybody should ever be so old ; or that Aunt 
Kindly ever had a mother to kiss her mouth. To them she is 
coeval with the sun, and, like that, an institution of the country. 
At Christmas they think she is the wife of Saint Nicholas him- 
self, such an advent of blessings is there from her hand. She has 
helped to lay a Messiah in many a poor man's crib. 

Now these things are passed by. No, they are not passed by ; 
they are remembered in the memory of the dear God, and every 
good deed she has done is treasured in her own heart. The 
bulb shuts up the summer in its breast which in winter will come 
out a fragrant hyacinth. Stratum after stratum her good works 
are laid up, imperishable in the geology of her character. 

It is near noon. She is alone. She has been thoughtful all 
day, talking inwardly to herself. The family notice it, and say 
nothing. In a chamber, from a private drawer, she takes a 
little casket, and from thence a book, gilt-edged and clasped; 
but the clasp is worn, the gilding is old, the binding is faded by 
long use. Her hands tremble as she opens it. First she reads 
her own name on the fly-leaf; only her Christian name, " Agnes," 
and the date. Sixty-eight years ago this day it was written 
there, in a clear, youthful, clerkly hand — with a little tremble 
in it, as if the heart beat over it quick. It is a very well worn, 
dear old Bible. It opens of its own accord at the fourteenth 
chapter of John. There is a little folded piece of paper there ; it 
touches the first verse and the twenty-seventh. She sees neither ; 
she reads both out of her soul ; " Let not your heart be troubled ; 
ye believe in God ; believe also in me." " Peace I leave with 
you. My peace give I unto you. Not as the world giveth give 
I unto you." She opens die paper. There is a little brown dust 
in it; perhaps the remnant of a flower. She takes the precious 



896 NARRATIVE-. [Book V. 

relic in her hand, made cold by emotion. She drops a tear on 
it, and the dust is transfigured before her eyes ; it is a red rose of 
the spring, not quite half blown, dewy fresh. She is old no 
longer. It is not Aunt Kindly now ; it is sweet Agues, as the 
maiden of eighteen was eight-and-sixty years ago, one day in 
May, when all nature was woosome and winning, and every 
flower-bell rung in the marriage of the year. Her lover had just 
put that red rose of the spring into her hand, and the good God 
another in her cheek, not quite half- blown, dewy fresh. The 
young man's arm is round her ; her brown curls fall on his 
shoulder ; she feels his breath on her face, his cheek on hers ; 
their lips join, and, like two morning dew-drops in that rose, 
their two loves rush into one. But the youth must wander to a 
far land. They will think of each other as they look at the 
North Star. She bids him take her Bible. He saw the North 
Star hang over the turrets of many a foreign town. His soul 
went to God — there is as straight a road from India as from any 
other spot — and his Bible came back to her — the divine love in 
it, without the human lover ; the leaf turned down at the blessed 
words of John, first and twenty-seventh of the fourteenth chapter. 
She put the rose there to note the spot ; what marks the thought 
holds now the symbol of their youthful love. Now to-day her 
soul is with him, her maiden soul with his angel soul : and one 
day the two, like two dew-drops, will rush into one immortal 
wedlock, and the old age of earth shall become eternal youth in 
the Kingdom of Heaven. 



14 Signing- the Pledge. 

The Rev. John Abbott, the sailor-preacher, relates the follow- 
ing good story of one of his converts to temperance ; — 

Mr. Johnson, at the close of a cold-water lecture, intimated 
that he must sign the pledge in his own way, which he did in 
these words ; 

" I, William Johnson, pledge myself to drink no more intoxi- 
cating drinks for one year." 

Some thought he would not stick three days, others allowed 
him a week, and a few others gave him two weeks ; but the 
landlord knew him the best, and said he was good stuff, but at 
the end of the year Bill would be a good soaker. 



Book V.] SIGNING THE PLEDGE. 397 

Before the year was quite gone, Mr. Johnson was asked by 
Mr. Abbott ; — 

" William, are not you going to resume the pledge Y % 

" Well, I do not know, sir, but what I will, I have done 
pretty well so far; will you let me sign it again my own way ?" 

" yes, any way, so that you will not drink rum." 

[He writes.'] "I, William Johnson, sign this pledge for nine 
hundred and ninety-nine years, and if living at the end of that 
time, I intend to make out a lease for life." 

A day or two after, Johnson went to see his old landlord, who 
eyed him as a hawk does a chicken. 

M 0, landlord !" he whined, accompanied by sundry contor- 
tions of the body, as if enduring the most excruciating torment, 
" I have such a lump on my side." 

" That's because you have stopped drinking ; you won't live 
two years longer at this rate." 

" If I commence drinking, will the lump go away ?" 

" Yes. If you don't you'll have a lump on the other side." 

"Do you think so, landlord?" 

"I know it; you'll have them on your arms, back, breast, and 
head ; you will be covered all over with lumps." 

"Well, may be I will," said William. 

"Come, Bill," said the landlord, "let's drink together;" at 
the same time pouring the red stuff from the decanter into the 
glass, gug, gug, gug. 

"No," said Johnson, " I can not for I have signed the pledge 
again." 

" You ain't though ! you are a fool !" 

"Yes, that old sailor coaxed so hard I could not get off." 

" I wish that old rascal was in Guinea. Well, how long do 
you go this time?" 

" For nine hundred and ninety-nine years." 

"You won't live a year." 

" Well, if I drink, are you sure the lump on my side will go 
away ?" 

" Yes." 

" Well, I guess I will not drink ; here's the lump," continued 
he, holding up something with a hundred dollars in it ; " and 
you say, Til have more such lumps, and that is what I want." 



398 HAMLET, [Book V. 

15. Hamlet and Horatio. — Shahspeare. 

Horatio. Hail to your lordship ! 

Hamlet. I am glad to see you well. [Approaches.] 
Horatio ! — or I do forget myself. 

Hor. The same, my lord, and your poor servant ever. 

Ham. Sir, my good friend, I '11 change that name with you. 
And what makes you from Wittenburg, Horatio ? 

Hor. A truant disposition, good my lord. 

Ham. I would not hear your enemy say so ; 
Nor shall you do mine ear that violence, 
To make it truster of your own report 
Against yourself. I know you are no truant ; 
But what is your affair in Elsinore ? 
We '11 teach you to drink deep ere you depart. 

Hor. My lord, I came to see your father's funeral. 

Ham. I pray thee do not mock me, fellow-student ; 
I think it was to see my mother's wedding. 

Hor. Indeed ! my lord, it followed hard upon. 

Ham. Thrift, thrift, Horatio ! the funeral baked meats 
Did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables. 
Would I had met my dearest foe in heaven, 
Or e'er I had seen that day, Horatio ! 
My father — methinks I see my father — 

Hor. Where, my lord ? 

Ham. In my mind's eye, Horatio. 

Hor. I saw him once, he was a goodly king. 

Ham. He was a man, take him for ail in all, 
I shall not look upon his like again. 

Hor. My lord, I think I saw him yesternight. 

Ham. Saw ! who ? 

Hor. My lord, the king, your father. 
Season your admiration for a while, 
With an intent ear ; till I may deliver, 
Upon the witness of these gentlemen, 
This marvel to you. 

Ham. For heaven's love, let me hear. 

Hor. Two nights together had these gentlemen, 
Marcellus and Bernardo, on the watch, 
In the dread waste and middle of the night, 
Been thus encountered : a figure like your father, 



Book V.] PRINCE OF DENMARK. 399 

Armed at point, exactly, cap-a-pie, 

Appears before them, and, with solemn march, 

Goes slow and stately by them ; thrice he walks 

By their oppressed and fear-surprised eyes, 

Within his truncheon's length : whilst they (distilled 

Almost to jelly with the act of fear) 

Stand dumb and speak not to him. 

Ham. But where was this ? 

Hor. My lord, upon the platform where we watched. 

Ham. Did you not speak to it ? 

Hor. My lord, I did ; 
But answer made it none ; yet once methought, 
It lifted up its head, and did address 
Itself to motion, like as it would speak ; 
But, even then, the morning cock crew loud; 
And at the sound it shrunk in haste away, 
And vanished from our sight. 

Ham. 'Tis very strange ! 

Hor. As I do live, my honored lord, 'tis true ; 
And we did think it writ down in our duty, 
To let you know of it. 

Ham. Indeed, indeed, sir, but this troubles me. 
Hold you the watch to-night ? 

Hor. We do, my lord. 

Ham. Armed, say you ? 

Hor. Armed, my lord. 

Ham. From top to toe ? 

Hor. My lord, from head to foot. 

Ham. Then saw you not his face ? 

Hor. yes, my lord ; he wore his beaver up. 

Ham. What, looked he frowningly ? 

Hor. A countenance more in sorrow than in anger. 

Ham. Pale, or red ? 

Hor. Nay, very pale. 

Ham. And fixed his eyes upon you? 

Hor. Most constantly. 

Ham. I would, I had been there. 

Hor. It would have much amazed you. 

Ham. Very like, very like ; staid it long ? 

Hor. While one with moderate haste might tell a hundred. 

Ham. His beard was grizzled ? No ? — 



400 IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL. [Book V. 

Hor. It was ? as I have seen it in his life, 
A sable silvered. 

Ham. I '11 watch to-night ; perchance 't will walk again. 

Hor. I warrant you, it will. 

Ham. If it assume my noble father's person, 
I'll speak to it, though hell itself should gape, 
And bid me hold my peace. I pray you, sir, 
If you have hitherto concealed this sight, 
Let it be tenable in your silence still ; 
And whatsoever else shall hap to-night, 
Give it an understanding, but no tongue ; 
I will requite your love ; so fare you well. 
Upon the platform, 'twixt eleven and twelve, 
I'll visit you, 



16. The Immortality of the Soul. — Addison. 

It must be so — Plato, thou reasonest well ! 

Else whence this pleasing hope, this fond desire, 

This longing after immortality ? 

Or whence this secret dread and inward horror 

Of falling into naught? Why shrinks the soul 

Back on herself, and startles at destruction ? — 

'Tis the Divinity that stirs within us ; 

'Tis Heaven itself, that points out an hereafter, 

And intimates eternity to man. 

Eternity ! — thou pleasing, dreadful thought ! 

Through what variety of untried being, 

Through what new scenes and changes, must we pass ! 

The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me, 

But shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it. 

Here will I hold. If there's a Power above us, — 

And that there is, all Nature cries aloud 

Through all her works, — he must delight in virtue ; 

And that which he delights in must be happy. 

But when ? or where ? This world was made for Caesar. 

I'm weary of conjectures — this must end them. 

[Laying his hand on his sword,"] 
Thus I am doubly armed. My death and life, 
My bane and antidote, are both before me. 
This in a moment brings me to an end ; 



Book V.] BYRON. 401 

But this informs me I shall never die! 
The soul, secured in her existence, smiles 
At the drawn dagger, and defies its point. 
The stars shall Hide away, the sun himself 
Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years ; 
But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth, 
Unhurt amidst the war of elements, 
The wreck of matter, and the crush of worlds! 



17. Byron.— R. Pollolc died in 1827. 

Great man ! the natrons gazed, and wondered much, 

And praised ; and many called his evil good. 

Wits wrote in favor of his wickedness ; 

And kings to do him honor took delight. 

Thus full of titles, flattery, honor, fame, 

Beyond desire, beyond ambition full, 

He died. He died of what ? Of wretchedness. 

Drank every cup of joy ; heard every trump 

Of fame ; drank early, deeply drank ; drank draughts 

That common millions might have quenched — then died 

Of thirst, because there was no more to drink. 

His goddess, Nature, wooed, embraced, enjoyed, 

Fell from his arms abhorred ; his passions died — 

Died, all but dreary, solitary Pride ; 

And all his sympathies in being died. 

As some ill-guided bark, well built and tall, 

Which angry tides cast out on desert shore, 

And then, retiring, left it there to rot 

And moulder in the winds and rains of heaven, <• 

So he, cut from the sympathies of life, 

And cast ashore from pleasure's boisterous surge, 

A wandering, weary, worn, and wretched thing, 

Scorched, and desolate, and blasted soul, 

A gloomy wilderness of dying thought, — 

Repined, and groaned, and withered from the earth. 

His groanings filled the land, his numbers filled : 

And yet he seemed ashamed to groan — poor man ! — 

Ashamed to ask, and yet he needed help. 



402 MARMION — MORNING. [Book V. 



18. Marmion. — Walter Scott died in 1832. 

When, doffed his casque, he felt free air, 

Around 'gan Marmion wildly stare. 

" Where 's Harry Blount ? Fitz-Eustace, where ? 

Linger ye here, ye hearts of hare ! 

.Redeem my pennon — charge again ! 

Cry, ' Marmion, to the rescue !' — Vain ! 

Last of my race, on battle plain 

That shout shall ne'er be heard again ! 

Yet my last thought is England's. Fly, 

Fitz-Eustace, to Lord Surrey hie. 

Tunstall lies dead upon the field ; 

His life-blood stains the spotless shield ; 

Edmund is down — my life is reft — 

The admiral alone is left. 

Let Stanley charge with spur of fire, 

With Chester charge, and Lancashire, 

Full upon Scotland's central host, 

Or victory and England's lost. 

Must I bid twice ? Hence, varlets, fly ! 

Leave Marmion here alone — to die." 



19. June Morning. — Anonymous. 

I saw the green buds in the garden growing, 
While each, bright gems of dew were tipping; 
I saw the swallow on her swift wing going, 
And ever and anon in the smooth pool dipping ; 
The*lark, to her nest, soft wool was bringing ; 
The trout from the lake's clear bosom springing ; 
The river its green banks was gently laving; 
And fields of grain, in the light breeze waving ; 
Childhood's joyous face was brightly glowing 
With life and health in the morn beams flowing; 
The maid and her lover delighted were roaming 
Where the rivulet down the steep ledge was foaming, 
And the glorious sun the whole scene adorning, 
Gave light and life to the glad June morning. 



Book V.] POETICAL EXTRACTS. 403 

20. Chaucer — Died in 1400. 
And put al that I had seene in writing, 
Under support of them that lust it to rede. 
little booke, thou art so unconning, 
How darst thou put thyself in prees for drede? 
It is wonder that thou wexest not rede ! 
Sith that thou wost ful lite who shall behold 
Thy rude language, ful boistously unfold. 

21. Lord Surrey — Died in 1547. 
Summer is come, for every spray now springs ; 
The hart hath hung his old head on the pale 
The buck in brake his winter coat he flings 
The fishes flete with new repaired scale # # * # 
And thus I see among these pleasant things 
Each care decays, and yet my sorrow springs. 

22. Spenser — Died in 1599. 
Who is the same which at my window peepes? 
Or whose is that fayre face that shines so bright ? 
Is it not Cinthia, she that never sleepes, 
But walks about high Heaven all the night ? 

23. Shakspeare — Died in 1616. 
When to the sessions of sweet silent thought 
I summon up remembrance of things past, 

I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought, 

And with old woes new wail my dear time's waste. 

24. Ben Jonson — Died in 1657. 
Where dost thou careless lie # 
Buried in ease and sloth ? 

Knowledge that sleeps, doth die ; 

And this security, 

It is the common moth 

That eats on wits and arts, and so destroys them both. 

25. Cowley — Died in 1667. 
Happy art thou whom God does bless, 
With the full choice of thine own happiness ; 
And happier yet, because thou'rt blest 
With prudence, how to choose the best. 



404 PARADISE LOST. [Book V. 

26. John Milton — Died in 1674. 

Now had night measur'd with her shadowy cone 
Half-way up hill this vast sublunar vault ; 
And from their ivory port the cherubim 
Forth issuing at th' accustom'd hour, stood arm'd 
To their night watches in warlike parade, 
When Gabriel to his next in power thus spake ; 

" Uzziel ! half these draw off, and coast the south 
With strictest watch ; these other wheel the north ; 
Our circuit meets full west." As flame they part, 
Half wheeling to the shield, half to the spear. 
From these, two strong and subtle spirits he calPd, 
That near him stood, and gave them thus in charge ; 

" Ithuriel, and Zephon ! with wing'd speed 
Search thro' this garden, leave unsearch'd no nook 
But chiefly where those two fair creatures lodge, 
Now laid perhaps asleep, secure of harm. 
This evening from the sun's decline arriv'd, 
Who tells of some infernal spirit, seen 
Hitherward bent, (who could have thought?) escap'd 
The bars of hell ; on erran'd bad, no doubt ; 
Such, where ye find, seize fast, and hither bring." 

So saying, on he led his radiant files, 
Dazzling the moon ; these to the bower direct, 
In search of whom they sought ; him there they found, 
Squat like a toad, close at the ear of Eve ; 
Assaying, by his devilish art, to reach 
The organs of her fancy, and with them forge 
Illusions, as he list, phantoms, and dreams ; 
Oil if, inspiring venom, he might taint 
Tn' animal spirits, that from pure blood arise, 
Like gentle breaths from rivers pure ; thence raise 
At least distemper'd discontented thoughts ; 
Vain hopes, vain aims, inordinate desires, 
Blown up with high conceits engend'ring pride. 
Him thus intent Ithuriel with his spear 
Touch'd lightly ; for no falsehood can endure 
Touch of celestial temper, but returns 
Of force to its own likeness; up he starts, 
Discover'd and surpris'd. As when a spark 
Lights on a heap of nitrous powder, laid 



Book V.] PARADISE LOST. 405 

Fit for the tun, some magazine to store 

Against a rumor'd war, the smutty grain 

With sudden blaze diffus'd, inflames the air ; 

So started up in his own shape the fiend. 

Back stepp'd those two fair angels, half amaz'd, 

So sudden to behold the grisly king ; 

Yet thus, unmov'd with fear, accost him soon ; 

" Which of those rebel spirits, adjudg'd to hell, 
Com'st thou, escap'd thy prison ? and transform 'd 
Why sat'st thou, like an enemy in wait, 
Here watching at the head of these that sleep ?" 

"Know ye not then," said Satan, fill'd with scorn, 
" Know ye not me ? ye knew me once no mate 
For you ; there sitting where ye durst not soar ; 
Not to know me argues yourself unknown, 
The lowest of your throng ; or if ye know, 
Why ask ye, and superfluous begin 
Your message, like to end as much in vain V 9 

To whom thus Zephon, answering scorn with scorn ; 
" Think not revolted spirit, thy shape the same, 
Or undiminish'd brightness, to be known 
As when thou stood'st in heaven, upright and pure, 
That glory then, when thou no more wast good, 
Departed from thee ; and thou resemblest now 
Thy sin, and place of doom, obscure and foul. 
But come ; for thou, be sure, shalt give account 
To him who sent us, whose charge is to keep 
This place inviolable, and these from harm." 

So spake the cherub ; and his grave rebuke, 
Severe in youthful beauty, added grace 
Invincible ; abash'd the Devil stood, 
And felt how awful goodness is, and saw 
Virtue in her shape how lovely ; saw, and pin'd 
His loss ; but chiefly to find here observ'd 
His lustre visibly impaired ; yet seem'd 
Undaunted. " If I must contend," said he, 
" Best with the best, the sender not the sent, 
Or all at once ; more glory will be won, 
Or less be lost." " Thy fear," said Zephon bold, 
" Will save us trial what the least can do 
Single against thee wicked, and thence weak." 



406 INVOCATION TO DEITY. [Book V. 

27. God. — Derzhavin. 

The following poem is a translation from the Russian. It has been 
translated into Japanese, by order of the emperor, and is hung up, em- 
broidered with gold, in the temple of Jeddo. It has also been translated 
into the Chinese and Tartar languages, written on a piece of rich silk, 
and suspended in the imperial palace at Pekin. 

Thou eternal One ! whose presence bright 
All space doth occupy, all motion guide ; 
Unchanged through time's all-devastating flight ; 
Thou only God ! There is no God beside ! 
Being above all beings ! Three-in-One ! 
Whom none can comprehend, and none explore ; 
Who fiU'st existence with Thyself alone ; 
Embracing all — supporting — ruling o'er — 
Being whom we call God — and know no more ! 

In its sublime research, philosophy 
May measure out the ocean deep — may count 
The sands or the sun's rays — but Godkfor Thee 
There is no weight nor measure ; — none can mount 
Up to Thy mysteries. Reason's brightest spark, 
Though kindled by Thy light, in vain would try 
To trace Thy counsels, infinite and dark ; 
And thought is lost ere thought can soar so high — 
E'en like past moments in eternity. 

Thou from primeval nothingness didst call, 
First chaos, then existence; — Lord! on Thee 
Eternity had its foundation ; — all 
Sprung forth from Thee ; — of light, joy, harmony, 
Sole origin ; — all life, all beauty, Thine. 
Thy word created all, and doth create ; 
Thy splendor fills all space with rays divine ; 
Thou art, and wert, and shall be ! Glorious, 
Light-giving, life-sustaining Potentate ! 

Thy chains the unmeasured universe surround ; 
Upheld by Thee, by Thee inspired with breath ! 
Thou the beginning with the end hast bound, 
And beautifully mingled life and death ! 
As sparks mount upward from the fiery blaze, 
So suns are born, so worlds spring forth from Thee ; 
And as the spangles in the sunny rays 



Book V.] INVOCATION TO DEITY. 407 

Shine around the silver snow, the pageantry 
Of heaven's bright army glitters in Thy praise. 

A million torches lighted by Thy hand 
Wander unwearied through the blue abyss; 
They own Thy power, accomplish Thy command, 
All gay with life, all eloquent with bliss. 
What shall we call them? Piles of crystal light — 
A glorious company of golden streams — 
Lamps of celestial ether burning bright — 
Suns lighting systems with their joyful beams? 
But Thou to these art as the noon to night. 

Yes ! as a drop of water in the sea, 
All this magnificence in Thee is lost ; — 
What are ten thousand worlds compared to Thee? 
And what am I then ? Heaven's unnumbered host, 
Though multiplied by myriads, and arrayed 
In all the glory of sublimest thought, 
Is but an atom in the balance weighed 
Against Thy greatness, is a cipher brought 
Against infinity ! What am I then ? Naught ! 
Naught ! But the effluence of Thy light divine, 
Pervading worlds, hath reached my bosom too ; 
Yes, m my spirit doth Thy spirit shine, 
As shines the sunbeam in a drop of dew'. 

Naught ! but I live, and on hope's pinions fly 
Eager toward Thy presence ; for in Thee 
I live, and breathe, and dwell ; aspiring high, 
Even to the throne of Thy divinity. 
I am, God ! and surely Thou must be ! 
Thou art ! directing, guiding all, Thou art ! 
Direct my understanding then to Thee ; 
Control my spirit, guide my wandering heart; 
Though but an atom midst immensity, 
Still I am something, fashioned by Thy hand ! 
I hold a middle rank, 'twixt heaven and earth, 
On the last verge of mortal being stand, 
Close to the realms where angels have their birth, 
Just on the boundaries of the spirit land ! 
The chain of being is complete in me ; 
In me is matter's last gradation lost, 
And the next step is spirit — Deity ! 



408 INVOCATION TO DEITY. [BookV. 

I can command the lightning and am dust ! 
A monarch, and a slave ; a worm, a god ! 
Whence came I here, and how? so marvellously 
Constructed and conceived ? unknown ! this clod 
Lives surely through some higher energy ; 
For from itself alone it could not be ! 

Creator, yes ! Thy wisdom and Thy word 
Created me I Thou source of life and good ! 
Thou spirit of my spirit, and my Lord ! 
Thy light, Thy love, in the bright plenitude. 
Filled me with an immortal soul, to spring 
Over the abyss of death, and bade it wear 
The garments of eternal day, and wing 
Its heavenly flight beyond the little sphere, 
Even to its source — to Thee — its author there. 

thoughts ineffable ! visions blest ! 
Though worthless our conception all of Thee, 
Yet shall thy shadowed image fill our breast, 
And waft its homage to Thy Deity. 
God ! thus alone my lonely thoughts can soar ; 
Thus seek Thy presence — Being wise and good, 
Midst Thy vast works admire, obey, adore ; 
And, when the tongue is eloquent no more, 
The soul shall speak in tears of gratitude. 



THE END. 






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